f 


^^^ 

LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

University  of  California. 

RECEIVED    BY    EXCHANGE 

Class 

- 

THE  PROFESSIONAL 


TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS 


IN  THE 


UNITED    STATES 


BY 

G.  W.  A.  LUCKEY 


SUBMITTED   IN   PARTIAL    FULFILLMENT   OF   THE    REQUIREMENTS 

FOR   THE   DEGREE   OF   DOCIOR   OF   PHILOSOPHY 

IN    THE 

Faculty  of  Philosophy 
CoLUMBU  University 


UNIVERSITY 


NEV^/^   VORK 
January,  1003 


u^^» 


n'ii 


V 


z 


''      OF  THE     "" 

UNIVERSITY 

or 


PREFACE. 


In  the  earliest  civilization  of  a  people  there  are  no  schools, 
and  no  conscious  teaching.  Such  intelligence  as  exists  is  of 
the  most  rudimentary  character,  narrowly  experiential,  do- 
mestic, phenomenal,  superstitious.  It  is  Hkewise  as  limited 
in  quantity  as  it  is  primitive  in  quality.  There  is  less  differ- 
ence between  the  knowledge  of  the  adult  and  that  of  the 
child,  or  between  the  wise  and  the  ignorant,  than  in  higher 
civilization.  Nature  and  experience  are  the  only  teachers, 
followed  by  parental  guidance  and  the  processes  of  uncon- 
scious imitation. 

This  stage  is  followed  by  another,  in  which  the  family 
represents  the  school  and  the  parents  represent  the  teachers. 
But  as  society  grows  more  complex,  and  knowledge  and  ex- 
perience accumulate,  special  teachers  become  an  essential 
factor  in  the  community  life.  In  the  differentiation  of  activi- 
ties the  best  informed  usually  become  the  teachers.  These 
differ  in  qualification  and  training  according  to  the  conditions 
of  the  environment,  the  stage  of  civilization  and  the  racial 
and  religious  ideals  of  the  people. 

The  subjects  of  study  in  primitive  systems  are  usually 
quite  simple,  depending  largely  upon  simple  processes  of 
memory  and  consisting  of  folk-lore,  tales  and  songs  of  heroes 
and  of  war,  traditions,  racial  history,  religious  beliefs  and 
ceremonies,  social  and  political  duties.  The  teaching  is 
correspondingly  simple.  But  with  the  beginning  of  written 
language,  history  and  literature  assume  a  more  important 
5]  5 


t>ooo 


PREFACE 


[6 


role  in  the  education  of  the  people,  and  the  teaching  increases 
in  difficulty.  Yet  even  in  this  stage  education  has  to  do 
mostly  with  a  knowledge  of  the  past,  the  course  of  study  re- 
mains quite  stable  and  the  teaching  is  empiric  and  compar- 
atively simple.  Thus  in  the  thought  of  the  mediaeval  and 
early  modern  universities  a  knowledge  of  the  subject-matter 
was  the  chief,  if  not  the  only  requisite,  to  successful  teach- 
ing.    A  university  degree  was  in  itself  a  license  to  teach. 

Within  the  last  century  the  educational  advancement,  at 
least  in  the  more  progressive  nations,  has  been  so  rapid,  the 
scientific  spirit  so  pronounced,  and  the  differentiation  and 
increased  complexity  of  subject-matter  so  great,  that  it  has 
become  necessary  to  simplify  the  processes  of  education  by 
more  expert  teaching. 

The  science  of  education,  depending  as  it  does  for  much 
of  its  material  upon  the  scientific  advancement  in  other 
fields  of  thought,  has  been  slow  in  its  development.  But 
the  growth  of  this  subject  in  late  years  has  been  rapid  and 
encouraging.  Along  with  the  advancement  of  the  science  of 
education  has  come  a  deeper  interest  in  the  science  and  art 
of  teaching  and  in  the  professional  training  of  teachers. 

Each  year  adds  new  material  to  the  experiences  of  the 
social  whole  and  increases  correspondingly  the  complexity 
of  the  preparation  necessary  to  carry  on  the  various  activi- 
ties of  life.  This  tends  not  only  to  extend  the  period  of 
infancy  and  lengthen  the  time  of  preparation,  but  also  to  add 
a  continually  increasing  burden  upon  mind  and  body.  To 
overcome  this  strain  without  at  the  same  time  limiting  the 
individual's  strength  and  usefulness,  it  is  necessary  that  the 
teaching  be  made  more  efficient  and  more  economical. 
Teachers  must  be  professionally  trained  for  their  work. 

In  this  study  we  have  endeavored  to  bring  together  ma- 
terial showing  the  growth  and  present  condition  of  the  pro- 
fessional training  of  secondary  teachers  in  the  United  States. 


7]  PREFACE  J 

To  throw  additional  light  upon  the  subject,  we  have  given 
in  Chapter  I,  a  brief  survey  of  the  beginning  and  growth 
of  the  movement  for  the  special  professional  training  of 
teachers  in  Germany,  the  country  in  which  the  subject  origi- 
nated and  in  which  it  first  took  permanent  root.  As  shown 
in  this  chapter,  the  professional  preparation  of  elementary 
and  of  secondary  teachers  in  Germany  resulted  from  two 
disparate  movements  or  influences,  the  latter  being  the  out- 
growth of  work  first  offered  in  the  philological  seminaries ; 
a  fact  which  probably  accounts  for  some  of  the  opposition 
still  manifested  by  many  classicists  against  departments  of 
education. 

In  Chapter  II  we  call  attention  to  a  few  important  points 
in  the  historical  development  of  normal  schools  in  the 
United  States.  In  Chapter  III  we  have  given  attention  to 
the  history  of  separate  normal  departments  in  colleges  and 
universities.  These  were  established  either  for  the  purpose 
of  training  elementary  teachers  or  for  the  training  of  ele- 
mentary and  secondary  teachers  combined.  Chapter  IV  is 
also  devoted  to  the  history  of  the  subject.  It  goes  more 
into  detail  with  the  historical  development  of  college  and 
university  departments  of  education  which  have  had  as  their 
chief  aim  the  professional  training  of  secondary  teachers. 
Chapter  V  is  devoted  to  a  study  of  pedagogical  instruc- 
tion, what,  when  and  how.  In  Chapter  VI  we  have  endeav- 
ored to  answer  the  question  of  the  advisability  of  having 
separate  training  schools  or  separate  courses  for  the  prepara- 
tion of  elementary  and  of  secondary  teachers.  To  the  whole 
we  have  added  an  appendix  consisting  of  a  series  of  out- 
lines on  the  history  of  education  explained  in  a  preface. 

This  study,  at  most,  is  scarcely  more  than  a  beginning. 
It  covers  but  few  points  on  an  important  field.  Should  it 
stimulate  thought  and  arouse  deeper  interest  in  the  pro- 
fessional training  of  teachers,  it  will  have  fulfilled  its  purpose. 


8  PREFACE  [8 

I  desire  to  acknowledge  obligations  to  the  professors  of 
education  in  colleges  and  universities  and  to  state  normal 
school  principals  who  have  so  kindly  aided  me  in  the  prose- 
cution of  this  study.  I  am  also  especially  indebted  to  Dr. 
Nicholas  Murray  Butler  and  to  Dr.  Jas.  E.  Russell  for  valu- 
■eble  suggestions  and  direction. 

G.  W.  A.  L. 

University  of  Nebraska,  Lincoln,  igoz. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  I 

BEGINNING  AND   GROWTH  OF  THE  PROFESSIONAL  TRAINING  OF 

TEACHERS 

GERMANY 

Part  I — Elementary  Schools 

l-AGB 

Church  and  School 17 

Prior  to  the  Renaissance 18 

Changes  in  Education 18 

Difficuhies  to  be  Overcome 18 

Germany  Leads  the  Way 19 

Effort  of  Ratich,  1619 19 

La  Salle,  1 684 20 

Francke  and  the  Teachers'  Seminaries  at  Halle 20 

Elementary  Normal  Schools 23 

Hecker  at  Berlin  23 

Provision  for  Teachers'  Examinations 24 

Subjects  of  Study 24 

Establishment  of  Teachers'  Seminaries  in  Silesia 24 

Spread  of  Normal  Schools 25 

Present  Condition 26 

Influence  of  the  Normal 26 

Course  of  Study  in  Normal  Schools 27 

Generalizations  Touching  the  Origin  of  Professional  Training 27 

Result  of  the  Realistic  Movement 28 

Practical  and  Industrial 29 

Part  II — Secondary  Schools 

Early  Seminaries 30 

The  Work  of  Gesner  at  Gottingen,  1 737 30 

The  Philological  Seminary  at  Halle 32 

Efforts  of  Von  Zedlitz 32 

9]  9 


lO  CONTENTS  [jO 

PAGE 

Nature  and  Aim  of  the  Seminary 33 

Neglect  of  Pedagogy 34 

Other  Philological  Seminaries 35 

Spread  of  the  Movement 36 

Effect  on  Teaching 36 

The  Gymnasial  Seminary  at  Berlin 37 

Its  Purpose 37 

Condition  of  Entrance 38 

Practice-Teaching 38 

Transfer  and  Other  Changes  of  the  School 38 

Other  Gymnasial  Seminaries 39 

Pedagogical  Seminaries 39 

The  Aim  and  Plan 40 

University  Lectures  on  Pedagogy 42 

Different  Forms  of  Teachers'  Seminaries 42 

Professional  Training  an  Essential  Requirement 43 

The  Seminary  of  To-Day 43 

Pedagogical  Motives  that  have  Shaped  Professional  Training 45 

France  and  England 48 

References 48 

CHAPTER  II 

HISTORY  OF  NORMAL  SCHOOLS— UNITED  STATES 

The  First  Years  of  the  Nation 51 

Origin  of  Normal  Schools 52 

The  Nature  of  the  Work .- 54 

List  of  Early  Normal  Schools,  with  Date  of  Estaljlishment 56 

Absence  of  High  Schools 57 

The  People's  School 58 

Beginning  of  High  Schools 58 

Extension  of  the  Normal  Course 58 

Change  in  Higher  Education 59 

Research  as  a  Factor 60 

Stimulus  of  Normal  Instruction  to  Higher  Education 60 

CHAPTER  III 

EARLIEST  EFFORTS  FOR  THE  PROFESSIONAL  TRAINING  OF 
TEACHERS  IN  COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES 

Normal  Departments  in  the  Universities 62 

Brown  University 63 


1 1  ]  CONTENTS  I  I 


PAGE 


Purpose  and  Development  of  the  Department 63 

Normal  Department,  Iowa  University 65 

Changes  in  Ideals,  and  Growth  of  the  Department 68 

The  College  of  Normal  Instruction,  University  of  Missouri 71 

Wisconsin  University,  Normal  Department 74 

Theory  and  Practice  of  Elementary  Instruction 74 

The  University  of  Kansas,  Normal  Department 78 

Department  of  Pedagogy,  University  of  Indiana 80. 

Professional  Training  for  High  School  Teachers 83 

Kentucky  State  College,  Normal  Department 85 

University  of  North  Carolina,  Normal  Department 88 

Beginning  of  State  Normal  Schools 89 

Closing  of  the  Normal  Department 91 

The  Training  of  Secondary  Teachers 91 

Department  of  Pedagogy,  University  of  Minnesota 92 

Outline  of  the  Department  in  Later  Years 93 

Condition  for  Entrance 94 

Present  Condition 95 

University  of  Utah,  Normal  Department 96 

Other  State  Universities  with  Normal  Departments 97 

University  of  North  Dakota 98 

University  of  Wyoming 98 

Denominational  Institutions 98 

Iowa  College,  Department  of  Pedagogy 99 

Summary lOO 

CHAPTER  IV 

HISTORY  OF  THE  SPECIAL   MOVEMENT   FOR  THE  PROFESSIONAL 
PREPARATION  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS 

Preface  103 

Michigan  University,  Department  of  Education 104 

The  Nature  of  the  Work 105 

First  Semester 107 

Second  Semester 108 

Teacher's  Diploma 109 

The  Aim  of  the  Department no 

Departments  of  Education  not  Intended  to  Duplicate  Normal  Schools 112 

Not  for  the  Training  of  Elementary  Teachers 113 

No  Practice-Teaching 114 

Johns  Hopkins  University,  Department  of  Education 115 

Aim  of  Department 116 


12  CONTENTS  [12 


PAGE 


Cornell  University,  Department  of  Education 117 

Reasons  for  Establishing  the  Department 117 

Nature  of  the  Work 118 

Teachers'  Certificates 1 20 

The  Ohio  University,  Department  of  Education 121 

Nature  of  the  Work 122 

Aim  of  the  Department 1 22 

The  Ohio  State  University 1 23 

Department  of  Pedagogy 1 23 

Aim  of  the  Department 1 24 

Clark  University,  Department  of  Education 125 

Nature  of  the  Work 126 

Aim  of  the  Department 127 

Harvard  University,  Department  of  Education 129 

Special  Courses  for  Teachers   1 29 

Nature  of  the  Work 1 30 

Columbia  University,  Department  of  Education 132 

Nature  of  the  Work 132 

Teachers  College,  Columbia  University 133 

Originated  to  Supply  the  Need  for  Industrial  Teachers 134 

Change  of  Ideal 135 

Aim  of  Teachers  College 137 

New  York  University,  School  of  Pedagogy 139 

Purpose  of  the  School 139 

Aim  of  the  School 140 

University  of  California,  Department  of  Education 141 

Teachers'  Courses 141 

Nature  of  the  Work 143 

Requirements  for  University  Teachers'  Certificate 143 

Aim  of  the  Department 144 

Nature  of  the  Work 144 

Other  University  Departments  of  Education 145 

Leland  Stanford  Jr.  University 145 

Northwestern  University,  Evanston,  Illinois 146 

University  of  Texas,  Department  of  Education 147 

University  of  Illinois,  Department  of  Education 147 

Rutgers  College,  Department  of  Education 148 

University  of  Pennsylvania,  Department  of  Education 148 

University  of  Nebraska,  Department  of  Education 149 

University  of  Colorado,  Department  of  Education 149 

School  of  Education,  Chicago  University 150 

Chairs  of  Pedagogy  Established  in  1898  and  in  1899 150 

Recapitulation 151 


I  3  J                                                CONTENTS  1 3 

PACK 

CHAPTER  V 

PEDAGOGICAL  INSTRUCTION— WHAT,  WHEN,  HOW 

Lack  of  Uniformity 1 54 

Evolution  of  Pedagogical  Courses   156 

Table  I,  Pedagogical  Courses 157 

Comments  on  Pedagogical  Courses 158 

Educational  Requirements  for  High  School  Teachers 1 60    r 

Views  of  Professors  of  Education 161 

Academic  Requirement 1 74 

Professional  Requireihent 1 74 

The  Essential  Subjects 176 

Table  II  . . ; 177 

Comparison  of  Tables  I  and  II    1 78 

Profitable  Studies  as  Judged  from  the  Students'  Standpoint 179 

Do  Prospective  Teachers  Serek  Professional  Training? 182 

University  Teachers'  Certificate 1 86 

The  IVhejt  of  Pedagogical  Instruction 189 

Teaching  and  Learning,  Disparate  Processes 191     ► 

How  Shall  Pedagogical  Instruction  be  s^ven? 1 93 

Essential  Qualities  of  the  Teacher 193  -^ 

Method  of  Treatment 1 95 

Text  or  Topic 196 

Course  in  Child  Study 198 

Children's  Drawings  (sample  outline),  Lessons  24  and  25 198 

Course  in  Methods 200 

Beginning  Reading 202 

Practice-Teaching 206  ^ 

High  School  Teachers  Require  Less  Practice-Teaching 207  >- 

How  is  Practice-Teaching  to  be  Obtained 208 

Arrangement  for  Observation  and  Practice  in  the  University  of  Nebraska    ...  211 

CHAPTER  VI 

THE  PROFESSIONAL  TRAINING  OF  ELEMENTARY  AND  OF 
SECONDARY  TEACHERS  COMPARED 

Is  There  a  Difference  in  the  Method  ? 215 

Reasons  for  Difference  in  Method 218 

Views  of  Normal  School  Principals 219 

Views  of  Professors  of  Education 222 

Marked  Differences  of  Opinion 227 

The  Differences  in  Methods 228 

The  Differences  in  Method  Due  to  Differences  Between  Childhood  and  Youth .  229 


14  CONTENTS  ["14 

PAGE 

Predominant  Elements  at  Different  Periods 23 1 

What  Shall  Be  the  Nature  of  the  Instruction  ? 232 

Meaning  of  Education 233 

Fields  of  Thought 234 

Stages  of  Mental  Development 234 

Different  Methods  of  Instruction 235 

Shall  There  Be  Separate  Schools  for  Elementary  and  Secondary  Teachers?  .  236 

The  Mission  of  Normal  Schools 237 

Mission  of  Departments  of  Education 238 

Some  Statistics 240 

Effect  of  Separate  Training  Schools 242 

Views  of  Normal  School  Principals  Favoring  Division 243 

Adverse  Views 244 

Change  not  Material 245 

Quotations  from  Professors  of  Education   245 

Adverse  Views 246 

The  Truth  Difficult  to  Find 247 

Colleges  vs.  Normal  Schools 248 

The  Need  for  Trained  Teachers 251 

The  Way  Out 252 

Reasonable  Standards 253 

Certificating  of  Teachers 254 

Conclusion 255 

Bibliography 258 

APPENDIX 

OUTLINES  ON  THE  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  AS  OFFERED  IN  THE 
UNIVERSITY  OF  NEBRASKA,  1901 

Preface 263 

History  of  Education,  Direction  for  Note  Book 265 

General  References  on  the  Histor}'  of  Education 267 

Chinese 270 

Questions  to  be  Considered  in  the  Education  of  Various  Countries 270 

India  and  the  Hindus 272 

Persians 274 

Hebrews 276 

Egyptians 278 

Greeks 281 

1 .  Spartans 284 

2.  Socrates 286 

3.  Plato  and  Xenophon 289 

4.  Aristotle 290 


I  5  ]                                                 CONTENTS  I  5 

PAGE 

Romans 292 

I .  Imperial  Rome 295 

Church  Fathers  and  Christian  Schools 297 

I.  Prominent  Names  Among  the  Early  Church  Fathers  and  Teachers  . .  299 

Asceticism  and  Monasticism 300 

Early  Schools  of  Ireland  and  Britain 301 

Charlemagne  and  the  Revival  of  Learning 303 

Universities  of  the  Middle  Ages 305 

Abelard  and  Scholasticism 307 

The  Renaissance  of  Education  in  the  Sixteenth  Century 309 

Humanism  and  Realism,  Erasmus  and  Sturm 311 

Changes  in  Educational  Ideals,  Rabelais  and  Montaigne 313 

The  Reformation  and  the  Protestant  Reformers 314 

Roger  Ascham  and  Classical  Learning 317 

F'rancis  Bacon  and  the  Revolt  Against  Classicism 319 

Loyola  and  the  Schools  of  the  Jesuits 321 

The  Jansenists  and  Fenelon 323 

Ratich  and  Comenius 325 

I .   Orbis  Sensualium  Pictus 326 

John  Locke 328 

Rousseau 331 

French   Revolution 334 

Pestalozzi 336 

Herbart 339 

Kant,  Fichte 341 

Froebel  (i  782-1852)  Education  Through  Self  Activity 342 

Education  of  Women  and  Women  as  Educators 346 

Education  at  the  Beginning  of  the  Nineteenth  Century 346 

Bell  and  Lancaster,  or  the  Monitorial  System  of  Education 348 

Herbert  Spencer 349 

Alexander  Bain 353 

HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  AMERICA 

Brief  Bibliography  on  the  History  of  Education  in  America 354 

Early  Colonial  Education,  1606-60 356 

1 .  Puritans 356 

2.  Cavaliers 357 

3.  Quakers 358 

4.  Dutch  358 

5.  Huguenots 359 

Education  During  Colonial  Period 360 

1 .  New  England 360 

2.  Middle  Colonies 362 

3.  Southern  Colonies 363 


J  6  CONTENTS  [  1 6 

PAGE 

Colonial  Colleges  and  Academies 363 

Colleges  Founded  Prior  to  1800 365 

Period  of  Reorganization  and  Educational  Formation 367 

1 .  Franklin 3^9 

2.  Washington 3^9 

3.  Jefferson 3^9 

4.  Noah  Webster 370 

Supervision  of  Schools 372 

Provisions  for  the  Preparation  and  Improvement  of  Teachers 375 

Gradation  of  Schools 37^ 

Changes  in  College  Curricula,  University  Extension  and  Growth  in  Industrial 

Education 38° 

Education  of  Defective  and  Criminal  Classes 382 

Education  of  the  Negro  and  Condirion  of  Education  in  the  South 384 

Education  of  Women  and  Women  Educators 386 

The  New  Education 3^9 


CHAPTER  I 

BEGINNING  AND  GROWTH  OF  THE  PROFES- 
SIONAL TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS 

GERMANY 

Part  I. — Elementary  Schools 

It  is  probably  true  that  educators  of  all  times  have  fell 
the  necessity  of  special  preparation  for  those  who  are  to  be- 
come the  teachers  of  the  young;  and  yet,  it  is  only  during 
the  last  century  that  any  systematic  effort  has  been  made  in 
this  direction. 

During  the  Middle  Ages  nearly  all  education 

CHURCH   AND  •  ,         i  1,1^1  1  ,1 

,^„^^,  was  m  the  hands  of  the  Church,  and  there  was 
little,  if  any,  distinction  made  betweeij  the 
preparation  considered  necessary  for  the  office  of  the 
minister  and  that  of  the  teacher.  The  former  more  often 
filled  both  positions  with  equal  confidence,  calling  to  his 
aid  the  teacher  only  in  case  his  own  duties  became 
too  arduous,  and  then  to  serve  as  "  sexton,  chorister, 
beadle,  bell-ringer,  clock-maker  and  even  grave-digger," 
as  well  as  instructor.  "The  school-masters  were  scarcely 
more  than  the  domestics  of  the  cure," '  wandering  monks 
and  unsuccessful  candidates  for  the  clergy,  or  those  whose 
probationary  period  had  not  expired.  Hence,  with  but  few 
exceptions  the  stronger  students  became  the  ministers  and 
the  weaker  the  teachers. 

*  Compayre,  History  oj  Pedagogy,  p.  366. 
«7]  17 


I  8         TRAINING  OF  SECOND AR  Y  TEA  CHERS  [  j  8 

Aside  from  the    few    monasteries,    parochial 
and  cathedral  schools,  and  later,  the  univ^ersities 

RENAISSANCE  ' 

and  the  burgher  schools,  but  little  effort  was 
made  to  educate  the  masses  prior  to  the  Renaissance.  Such 
education  as  was  offered  consisted  for  the  most  part  of 
memory  exercises  on  church  doctrine  and  catechism,  and 
so  much  of  the  Latin  ritual  as  was  necessary  in  performing 
the  ordinary  services  of  the  church. 

With  the  growth  of  commercial  centers,  the 

breaking  away  from  church  authority  and  the 

EDUCATION  to  J  J 

final  separation  of  Church  and  State,  education 
assumed  an  entirely  different  aspect.  The  work  of  the 
minister  and  that  of  the  teacher  were  gradually  differentiated 
until  there  grew  up  two  entirely  different  classes  of  educators 
— the  ecclesiast  and  the  teacher.  The  growth  of  the  idea 
that  education  is  a  legitimate  function  of  the  State  hastened 
the  separation. 

As  the  State  began  to  assume  control  of  educational 
affairs,  the  special  preparation  of  teachers  became  an  object 
of  more  immediate  concern.  Prior  to  this  time  any  mention 
of  the  special  professional  training  of  teachers  would  have 
been  regarded  as  the  visionary  dream  of  an  educational  enthu- 
siast. Had  not  the  colleges  and  the  Church  been  preparing 
teachers  all  these  years?  Were  not  scholarship  and  common 
sense  the  only  necessary  requisites  of  the  teacher?  These 
and  similar  questions  were  more  common  a  hundred  years 
ago  than  now. 

There    were    other    difficulties — lack    of    re- 

DIFFICULTIES  TO  j-     -j     j  i.-i.  i.    ^ ^t.^,^ 

sources,  a  divided  constituency,  no  state  system 

BE  OVERCOME       ■^  >  -"  ^y 

of  education  and  but  few  land-marks.  The 
spread  of  schools  became  more  rapid  than  the  increase  in 
the  supply  of  teachers,  even  of  the  maimed,  the  halt  and 
the  blind,  of  whom  it  has  been  said:  "The  teacher  was 
i)ften  regarded  in  the  community  on  the  same  footing  as 


ip]  BEGINNING  AND  GROWTH  19 

a  mendicant,  and  between  the  herdsman  and  himself,  the 
preference  was  for  the  herdsman.  Consequently,  the  situa- 
tion of  the  school-master  was  the  most  often  sought  after  by 
men  who  were  infirm,  crippled,  unfit  for  any  other  kind  of 
work."' 

Such,  or  even  worse,  was   the   condition   of 

GERMANY  LEADS         _     .  ,  .  .,   ,,  ,     ,,  •     i   .  4.U 

affairs  when  near  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth 

THE  WAY  ° 

century  the  German  government  (the  first  of 
all  nations)  began  to  take  up  in  earnest  the  special  prepara- 
tion of  teachers.  The  movement  began  as  do  most  reforms, 
without  a  definite  plan  and  without  a  full  realization  and 
appreciation  of  the  magnitude  and  importance  of  the  under- 
taking. But  it  grew,  was  modified  and  spread  throughout 
the  schools  of  the  empire,  until  "The  result  is  the  best 
equipped  and  most  exclusive  body  of  teachers  in  the 
world."  '^ 

In  1524  Luther  said  in  a  communication  addressed  to  the 
public  authorities  of  Germany  that  "  Since  the  greatest  evil 
in  every  place  is  the  lack  of  teachers,  we  must  not  wait  till 
they  come  forward  of  themselves ;  we  must  take  the  trouble 
to  educate  them  and  prepare  them." 

But  it  remained  for  Ratich  to  have  the  honor 
Jrl^cH^elg    °^  establishing  the  first  pedagogical  seminary, 

which  was  founded  at  Koethen  in  1619,  under 
the  patronage  of  Prince  Ludwig,  of  Anhalt-Koethen,  and  of 
Duke  John  Ernest,  of  Weimar.  Ratich  claimed  to  have  in- 
vented a  new  and  far  more  efficient  method  of  teaching  the 
languages,  and  this  institution  was  established  for  the  pur- 
pose of  training  teachers  in  the  use  of  the  new  method. 
He  gave  lectures  on  didactics,  held  discussions  on  educa- 
tional problems,  conducted  model  lessons  on  language 
teaching  and  called  on  members  of  his  classes  to  conduct 

*  Compayre,  History  of  Pedagogy,  p.  519. 
'  Russell,  German  Higher  Schools,  p.  354. 


20  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [20 

lessons  under  guidance.  Although  the  institution  continued 
only  a  few  months  and  left  but  little  permanent  benefit,  it 
contained  in  embryo  many  of  the  principles  now  considered 
of  much  value  in  the  training  of  teachers,  especially  in  the 
line  of  theory  and  practice. 

The  next  institution   to   take   form    looking 

LA  SALLE,  1684  ,      ,  .     .  1  r- 

toward  the  trammg  of  teachers  was  the  "  Semi- 
nary for  Schoolmasters,"  established  by  Abbe  Jean  Baptiste 
de  la  Salle  at  Rheims  in  1684.  La  Salle  was  a  religious 
devotee  who,  seeing  the  great  ignorance  of  the  persons  who 
applied  for  positions  in  the  parish  schools,  founded  the 
order  known  as  the  "  School  Brethren,  Freres  ignorantins," 
and  in  1679  opened  his  own  home  to  several  teachers  of 
limited  means.  In  1684  he  established  the  "Institute  of  the 
Brethren  of  the  Christian  Schools  "  and  the  "  Seminary  for 
Schoolmasters,"  as  indicated  above.  The  object  of  the  latter 
was  to  train  teachers  for  the  rural  districts.  The  School 
Brethren  established  many  schools  under  the  authority  of  the 
Church,  and  did  for  primary  education  what  the  Jesuits  did 
for  secondary  education.  The  members  of  the  order  devoted 
themselves  to  elementary  teaching  in  harmony  with  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Catholic  Church.  The  work  consisted  more  of 
academic  than  of  professional  studies,  but  it  is  worthy  of 
note  that  a  few  years  later  a  similar  institution  established 
by  La  Salle  at  Paris  had  connected  with  it  a  primary  school 
in  which  the  teaching  was  done  by  students  in  practice. 
FRANCKK  AND  "^^^  Scmiuarium  Praeceptorum,  or  Teachers 
THE  teachers'  Seminary,  opened  by  A.  F.  Francke  in  connec- 
sEMiNARiESAT  tion  wlth  his  orphan  asylum  at  Halle  in  1696, 

and  the  Seminarium  Selectum  Praeceptorum 
established  in  connection  with  his  Pedagogium  in  1707 
are  usually  referred  to  as  the  first  institutions  founded 
for  the  professional  training  of  teachers,  and  judged  by 
their  success  and  influence  they  well  merit  the  honor.     It 


2i]  BEGINNING  AND  GROWTH  '     21 

was  a  private  and  philanthropic  enterprise  which"'  grew  out 
of  the   necessity  for  trained  teachers  at  the  orphan  asylum 
and    other    institutions    established    by    Francke    at    Halle 
through    the    liberal    donations    of    the    people.     Francke 
began  by  selecting   a  number  of  needy  students   to   assist 
him   in   the  work  of  instruction,  in   return   for  which  they 
received  board  and  lodging  free.     In   1704  he  selected  ten 
or  twelve  students  from  the  above  number  "  who  exhibited 
the   right  basis    of    piety,   knowledge,   skill   and   desire   for 
teaching,"    and  constituted  them  his  "  Seminarium  Praecep- 
torum,  or  Teachers'    Seminary."     These   students   engaged 
themselves  for  five  years,  the  first  two  of  which  were  devoted 
to    further    study,    especially    in    academic    subjects,    and 
weekly  lectures  and  discussions  on  the  theory  and  practice 
of  teaching.     The  next  three  years  were  given  to  teaching  in 
the   orphan  asylum,   Paedagogium  and  other  schools  con- 
nected with  the  institution.     By  means   of  this  training  the 
students  became  so  much  better  equipped  in  their  work  as 
teachers  that  on  leaving  the  institution  they  spread  its  fame 
throughout  all  Germany.     This   had  the  efifect  of  attracting 
many  strong  students  to  the  school  at  Halle,  and  of  stimu- 
lating others  to  found  similar  institutions  elsewhere. 

The  work  of  the  Seminarium  Selectum  was  adapted  es- 
pecially to  secondary  education,  while  that  of  the  Teachers* 
Seminary  was  fitted  more  particularly  for  the  work  of  ele- 
mentary schools.  Members  of  the  latter  had  less  theory  but 
more  practice. 

It  is  worthy  of  note  that  Christoph  Cellarius,  an  eminent 
classical  scholar  and  professor  of  eloquence  and  history  in 
the  University  of  Halle,  conducted  the  scientific  exercises  of 
the  Seminarium  Selectum  for  a  short  time  prior  to  his  death 
(1707)  and  gave  daily  lectures  on  the  humanities  to  mem- 
bers of  the  Teachers'  Seminary. 

Francke  was  not  satisfied  with  the  institution,  and  in  17 14 


22  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  r22 

he  prepared  plans  for  a  Seminarium  Ministerii  Ecclesiastici 
and  a  Seminarium  Elegantioris  Litteraturse.  In  the  former 
were  to  be  trained  the  future  servants  of  the  Church  (Pro- 
testant) and  in  the  latter  those  who  were  to  pursue  by  pro- 
fession the  humanities,  and  who  desired  to  prepare  them- 
selves for  the  offices  of  the  classical  schools  (Gelehrten 
Schulen).  Herein  Francke  had  already  shown  himself  to  be 
the  forerunner  of  Wolf,  who  many  years  later  accomplished 
the  complete  separation  of  theological  and  philological 
studies.  It  was  thought  in  this  way  to  spare  the  student 
many  subjects  which  were  chiefly  of  value  to  the  future 
preacher  and,  on  the  other  hand,  to  make  philology  and 
kindred  sciences  the  problem  of  more  immediate  concern. 
The  subjects  designated  for  this  purpose  were  Latin,  Greek, 
Hebrew,  history,  geography,  pure  and  applied  mathematics 
and  fluency  in  French  speech.  Besides,  the  members  busied 
themselves  with  the  methodology  of  the  humanities  and  di- 
rectly qualified  themselves  for  employment  in  the  teacher's 
profession.  The  guidance  of  these  students  was  in  the  hands 
of  the  inspectors  of  the  Pedagogium  and  of  the  Latin  School/ 

The  work  of  Francke  at  Halle  was  of  especial  interest  not 
only  because  it  furnished  the  foundation  of  the  later  devel- 
oped Real  Schools  of  Germany  but  also  because  we  find  here 
the  beginning  of  the  systematic  preparation  of  teachers 
which  led  the  way  to  the  establishment  of  elementary  normal 
schools;  and  because  in  the  work  of  the  Seminarium  Se- 
lectum,  and  the  classical  instruction  in  the  Pedagogium,  we 
find  foreshadowed  the  Philological  Seminaries  which  repre- 
sented the  first  efforts  toward  the  professional  training  of 
secondary  teachers. 

In  1732  a  preacher  and  disciple  of  Francke,  by  the  name 

^  Fries,   Baumeister's    Handbuch    der    Erziehungs-    und  Unterrichts-lehre    fflr 
hohere  Schulen,  Vol.  II,  part  i,  p.  49. 


23] 


BEGINNING  AND  GROWTH 


of  Schienmeyer,'  opened  a  teachers'   seminary   in   connec- 
tion with  his  orphan  asylum  at  Stettin.     This 


ELEMENTARY 


movement  received  the  expressed  approval  of 

NORMAL 

SCHOOLS       ^^^  1^'"&'  Frederic  William  I,,  and  so  interested 
him  that  later,  in  1736,  he  issued  an  order  to 
Abbot    Steinmetz,    of    Kloster-Bergen,    instructing    him    to 
establish  a  normal  school  at  that  place. 

As  a  result  of  the  pietistic  movement  started  by  Francke 
many  other  attempts  were  made  to  establish  teachers'  train- 
ing classes  in  connection  with  church  and  city  schools. 

The  most  important  private  venture  of  this 
HECKER  AT     Y\ViA  was  the   Teachers'  Seminary  or  Normal 

BERLIN  '' 

School  established  by  the  Rev.  John  Julius 
Hecker  at  Kurmark  in  Berlin  in  1748. 

Hecker  had  been  brought  under  the  influence  of  Francke 
while  a  student  at  the  University  of  Halle,  and  when  called 
to  the  pastorate  of  the  Church  of  the  Trinity,  at  Berlin,  he 
became  instructor  of  the  German  schools  of  the  parish. 
These  grew  so  under  his  guidance  that  in  1747  he  added  to 
the  curriculum  drawing,  geometry,  architecture,  agriculture, 
and  the  natural  sciences,  and  designated  the  enlarged  insti- 
tution the  Real-schule.  The  following  year  he  added  the 
Teachers'  Seminary  or  Normal  School. 

This  school  at  once  attracted  the  attention  of  the  king, 
Frederic  the  Great,  who  like  his  father,  Frederic  William  I., 
was  greatly  interested  in  bettering  the  educational  conditions 
of  his  kingdom. 

By  royal  ordinance  in  1753  the  king  enjoined  that  all  the 
vacancies  of  the  country  schools  on  certain  sections  of  the 
crown  lands  of  the  kingdom  should  be  supplied  by  teachers 
educated  at  the  Kurmark  Normal  School,  granting  at  the 
same  time  an  annual  stipend  for  the  support  of  twelve 
alumni  of  this  institution.  Through  an  act  of  the  king  in 
*  Schmid,  Encyc,  Vol.  X,  p.  51. 


24  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [24 

the  following  year  this  private  school  of  Hecker's  was  made 
the  royal  primary  school  for  the  education  of  schoolmasters 
and  parish  clerks. 

The    first    general    school    regulations    for 
PROVISION  FOR  Prussia  (1763)  drawn  up  by  Hecker  and  issued 

TEACHERS'         ,  ,  ,  •  •         , 

EXAMINATIONS  ^Y  ^0X^1  authonty,  required,  among  other  pro- 
visions, that  teachers  pass  an  examination  prior 
to  appointment,  and  that  for  the  royal  schools  in  the  dis- 
trict, towns  and  villages,  only  such  teachers  be  employed 
as  have  been,  at  least  for  some  time,  pupils  of  the  royal 
sacristans'  and  school-masters'  normal  school  at  Kurmark  in 
Berlin,  and  who  have  acquired  the  practical  knowledge  of 
silk  industry  and  of  the  methods  of  school-keeping  as  prac- 
ticed in  the  German  schools  of  Trinity  Church.' 

These  regulations  required  that  all  children 
^  °^    be  sent  to  school  regularly  from  5  to  13  or  14 

STUDY  o  /  J  ^  -r 

years  of  age  and  be  "  Christianly  taught  in 
reading,  prayings  chanting,  writing  and  arithmetic,  cate- 
chism and  Biblical  history." 

Two   years   later,  Frederic  the  Great  issued 

ESTABLISHMENT  similar  regulations  for  his  Catholic  subjects  in 

OF  TEACHERS    giiggja  jj^  which  hc  required  that  all  teachers 

SEMINARIES  IN  ,    /  ,  ^ 

SILESIA  i^  cities  and  villages  be  examined  before  ap- 
pointment. In  order  that  the  young  might 
have  the  best  instruction  and  that  adults  might  be  taught 
how  to  teach  and  manage  youth,  he  selected  several  schools 
that  were  to  serve  as  seminaries  for  future  teachers.  These 
schools  were  to  have  a  well-informed  director  and  skillful 
teachers.  "  The  director  should  aim  to  have  everything  in 
his  school  taught  thoroughly  and  in  reference  to  the  needs 
of  common  life."'     His  object  should  be,  not  to  load  the 

*  Barnard's  National  Education  in  the  German  States,  p.  344. 
*From  the  Law  as  quoted  by  Barnard  in  National  Education  in  the  German 
States,  p.  869. 


2 el  BEGINNING  AND  GROWTH  25 

memory,  but  to  train  the  mind  and  develop  the  understand- 
ing. The  best  methods  were  demanded  for  these  schools, 
and  the  students  preparing  for  teaching  were  required,  along 
with  their  academic  studies,  to  observe  the  instruction  of 
children  as  given  by  the  regular  teaching  and  then  to  con- 
duct themselves  under  the  guidance  and  criticism  of  the 
teacher.  Many  of  the  provisions  of  this  law  have  continued 
in  force  even  to  the  present  time. 

From  this  time  forth  normal  schools  spread 
SPREAD        quite  rapidly  throughout  Germany.     But  it  was 

OF  NORMAL  ...  111 

SCHOOLS       "o^  wviXA  the  present  century  that  they  began 
to  assume  definite  form  and  to  become  perman- 
ently fixed  as  an  essential  part  of  the  educational  system. 

The  school  law  of  1819  required  every  departmental  dis- 
trict to  support  at  least  one  normal  school ;  and  to  have  in 
connection  therewith  a  primary  school  to  furnish  the  stu- 
dents opportunity  for  observation  and  practice  teaching. 

In  order  that  these  schools  might  be  kept  as  close  to  the 
people  as  possible,  and  that  the  pupil  teachers  be  preserved 
from  dissipation  and  the  temptations  of  city  life,  the  number 
of  students  was  limited  to  70,  and  the  normal  schools  were 
to  be  established,  whenever  possible,  in  small  towns.  The 
confessional  character  of  the  schools  was  then  established  as 
it  still  remains.  In  communities  where  the  number  of 
Catholics  and  Protestants  were  nearly  equal,  a  normal  school 
for  each  denomination  was  to  be  created.  In  other  com- 
munities the  school  was  to  take  on  the  confessional  form 
representing  the  stronger  sect,  those  of  the  minority  attend- 
ing a  school  in  an  adjoining  district. 

The  above  law  fixed  the  age  of  admission  to  the  normal 
school  as  from  16  to  18  years,  and  in  the  matter  of  scholar- 
ship required  that  the  candidate  should  have  passed  through 
a  course  of  instruction  in  an  elementary  school. 

At  present  the  age  limit  is  17  years,  and  the  candidate 


26  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [26 

must  have  completed  a  common  school  (volkschule)  course 
of  eight  years  and  also  the  three  years'  course 
preparatory  to  the    normal   school.     He  must 

CONDITION        i^      ^  J        ^ 

furnish  a  physician's  certificate  of  sound  health; 
a  certificate  from  the  pastor  showing  that  his  char- 
acter has  been  moral  and  blameless,  and  certificates  from 
at  least  two  of  his  former  teachers  showing  previous  in- 
dustry and  moral  habits,  and  indicating  that  he  has  suffi- 
cient ability  for  the  teacher's  profession. 

Furnished  with  these  credentials  the  candidate  is  admftted 
to  the  entrance  examination,  which  includes  Biblical  history, 
history  of  Christianity,  catechism,  reading,  writing,  grammar, 
arithmetic,  geography,  German  history,  natural  history  and 
vocal  and  instrumental  music. 

If  successful  his  name  is  placed  on  the  eligible  list  of  ap- 
plicants according  to  rank,  from  which  the  highest  are 
selected  to  fill  the  first  vacancies  occurring  in  the  normal 
school  of  the  district. 

Since   graduation    from  the  normal   schools 

INFLUENCE  OF    ,  ,  ,  ,  ,  ,        ,         . 

-r„T.  x,^„„.,    has  become  almost  the  only  means  of  obtain- 

THE   NORMAL  •' 

ing  a  position  as  teacher  in  the  elementary 
schools  of  Germany,  the  influence  of  these  institutions  in 
molding  the  ideas  of  the  people  can  hardly  be  overesti- 
mated. 

The  course  extending  over  three  years  varies  but  little- 
throughout  the  different  states  and  is  as  follows: 


27]  BEGLXNLXG  AND  GROWTH  2/ 

COURSE  OF   STUDY   OF  THREE  YEARS    IN    NORMAL   SCHOOLS   OF   PRUSSIA. 

1st  Year.                   2nd  Year.  3rd  Year. 
Required  Subjects.             hrs.  per  wk.              hrs.  per  wk.              hrs.  per  wk. 

Pedagogy    2  3  3 

Religion 4  4  2 

German 5  5  2 

History    2  2  2 

Arithmetic 3  3  "1 

Geometry 2  2  / 

Nat.  Science 4  4  2 

Geography 2  2  I 

Drawing 2  2  I 

Writing    2  I  O 

Gymnastics 2  2  2 

Music 5  5  3 

Total    35  35  20 

Besides  the  above  required  work  the  student  may  elect 
Latin,  French  or  EngHsh  offered  in  courses  of  3  hrs.,  3  hrs., 
2  hrs.  per  week. 

With  the  exception  of  pedagogy,  the  subjects  presented 
in  the  Normal  Schools  are  the  same  as  those  presented  in 
the  preparatory  schools  and  in  the  main  similar  to  the  sub- 
jects that  the  student  will  be  called  upon  to  teach  in  the  ele- 
mentary schools. 

Ail  normal  schools  are  under  governmental  control,  tui- 
tion is  free,  and  at  least  half  of  the  living  expenses  of  the 
students  is  borne  by  the  State. 

All  candidates  contract  to  engage  in  teaching  in  whatever 
places  they  are  assigned  for  at  least  three  years,  and  are 
sure  of  permanent  employment. 

GENERALIZATIONS     ^  ^^^^    prcscuted   hcre    only  a    few    of   the 
TOUCHING  THE  salicut  fcaturcs.     The   normal  schools  of  Ger- 

oRiGiN  OF      many  have  been  the  result  of  a  slow  growth, 
PROFESSIONAL  jJ^^-gJ.J^J^|  gj^^  cxtcmal,  which  is  still  going  on. 

TRAINING  '^  ° 

They  are  the  product  of  the  reform  movement 
in  education  which  tended  toward  realism  and  away  from 


28  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [28 

classicism — an  effort  which  had  for  its  object  the  practical 
education  of  the  masses,  the  fitting  of  youth  for  citizenship 
and  the  practical  duties  of  life.  Or,  according  to  Rein,  "  If 
one  seeks  the  pedagogical  motives  out  of  which  these  estab- 
lishments grew  he  finds  them  resulting  partly  through 
pietistic  and  partly  through  philanthropic  influences  which 
dominated  there,  the  former  rather  pastorally  inclined 
through  the  needs  of  the  youth,  the  latter  arising  more 
especially  from  the  idea  of  a  general  school  reform."  ' 

Dr.  Russell  in  speaking  of  this  reform  movement  says, 
"  Two  dominant  motives  determined  all  action  in  this  direc- 
tion: (i)  The  perfection  of  the  individual,  and  (2)  the 
mastery  over  environment  These  two  ideas  also  entered 
into  the  educational  ideas  of  the  time,  and  directed  the  de- 
velopment of  the  school  system.  The  one  was  essentially 
humanistic  as  pertaining  to  the  perfection  of  the  human  sub- 
ject; the  other  was  essentially  realistic  as  pertaining  to  the 
control  of  things  in  the  objective  world."  And  again,  "The 
real  school,  therefore,  is  the  direct  response  to  the  individual 
ideal  that  lays  special  emphasis  on  the  mastery  of  environ- 
ment." ' 

Normal  schools  were  the  result  of  this  real- 
istic   movement  which  called  attention  to  the 

REALISTIC 

MOVEMENT  objccts  of  thc  environment  and  created  a  demand 
for  new  subjects  of  study  as  well  as  a  more 
rationalistic  method  of  teaching  the  old  ones. 

In  order  to  advance  the  new  education  it  was  necessary  to 
have  teachers  educated  not  only  in  the  new  subjects  but  also 
in  the  spirit  of  the  new  thought;  hence  the  importance  of 
teachers'  seminaries. 

At  first  the  new  subjects  contained  but  little  content  and 
were  not  to  be  compared  to  the   humanities  in  educative 

'  Volks$chullehrer  bildung,  Rein's  Encyc,  7 :  1044. 
'  German  Higher  Schools,  p.  64. 


29]  BEGINNING  AND  GROWTH  29 

value.  Two  ideas  became  prominent,  the  one,  to  extend  the 
number  of  new  subjects,  the  other,  to  shorten  the  time  given 
to  the  classics  by  means  of  better  methods,  and  to  add  to 
this  curriculum  some  of  the  real  studies.  Neither  of  these 
views  wholly  prevailed;  the  latter  exerted  much  influence  in 
modifying  the  classical  schools,  while  the  former,  somewhat 
changed,  became  the  ideal  of  the  elementary  and  normal 
schools. 

The  thing  that  was  most  desired  at  first  was 
not  culture,  but  knowledge  and  the  power  of 

INDUSTRIAL  '  °  ^ 

imparting  that  knowledge  to  others.  This  gave 
the  normals  a  practical  and  industrial,  though  somewhat 
narrow  turn,  which  they  still  retain.  Agriculture,  mechanic 
arts,  manual  training,  silk  industry,  weaving,  cooking,  etc., 
were  subjects  quite  frequently  introduced  into  the  curriculum. 

Among  the  principal  forces  that  have  been  at  work  in 
shaping  the  development  of  these  institutions  may  be  men- 
tioned the  pietists  under  Francke,  the  philanthropists  under 
Basedow,  educational  reformers  like  Pestalozzi,  Felbiger  and 
Diesterweg,  the  clergy,  long  the  guardian  of  all  education, 
jealous  of  its  power  and  unwilling  to  give  up  its  authority, 
and  the  central  government,  always  aggressive  in  extending 
its  power  and  influence.' 

The  normal  schools  have  taken  on  a  distinctly  German 
character.  They  represent  the  interests  of  the  common  peo- 
ple. They  promulgate  class  distinction  by  ofTering  a  course 
unsuited  to  advancement  in  the  higher  institutions.  Thor- 
ough academic  instruction  over  a  limited  field  by  methods 
which  are  intended  as  a  guide  for  the  pupil  teacher,  observa- 
tion and  criticism  of  school  work  and  practice  teaching  ac- 
cording to  model,  are  the  principal  features  for  which  they 
stand. 

'  Compare  Barnard's  National  Education  in  the  German  States ;  Volks- 
schullehrer  bildung.  Rein's  Encyc,  7 :  1040,  and  Volkischullehrer  seminar, 
Schmid's  Encyc,  10:  51. 


30  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [30 

Part  II. — Secondary  Schools. 

Turning  our  attention  to  the  professional  training  of  teach- 
ers for  secondary  education,  we  find  the  first  efforts  in  this 
direction  being  made  through  the  theological  and  philolog- 
ical seminaries  of  the  universities,  especially  in  the  latter. 

Prior  to  the  i8th  century  no  special  arrangements  had 
been  made  at  the  universities  or  elsewhere  for  the  profes- 
sional training  of  secondary  teachers. 

Many  theologians  having  noticed  how  frequently  their  stu- 
dents were  called  as  tutors  and  school  officers  felt  the  need 
of  giving  them  a  more  suitable  training,  and  Buddeus,  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  Jena,  even  went  so  far  as  to  advocate 
for  this  purpose  the  establishment  of  a  pedagogical  semi- 
nary, but  nothing  further  resulted  from  this  source. 

Leaving  out  of  account  the  efforts  of  Cellarius 

SEMINARIES  ^^  ^^  Univcrslty  of  Halle  and  that  of  Francke 
in  his  Paedagogium,  both  of  which  related  to 
the  humanities  and  were  in  a  certain  sense  philological 
seminaries,  the  oldest  example  of  a  university  seminary  hav-| 
ing  for  its  object  the  professional  training  of  teachers  was 
the  philological  seminary  established  by  J.  M.  Gesner  in  the; 
University  of  Gottingen  1737. 

While  a  student  of  theology  under  Buddeus  at  Jena,  Ges- 
ner had  shown  particular  interest  in  pedagogical  problems, 
and  at  the  suggestion  of  the  former  had  written,  in  171 5,  his 
"  Institutiones  rei  scholasticae,"  a  sort  of  educational  com- 
pendium containing  many  important  rules  for  teachers,  and 
intended  to  be  used  as  a  basis  of  lectures  in  a  pedagogical 
seminary. 

For  the  next  20  years  Gesner  had  an   un- 
THEwoRKOF     ugu^lly  Hch    cducatioual    experience,  first  as 

GESNER  AT  ,.,  /  ,Tr    .  ,  ,        i 

GOTTINGEN,  1737  librarian    at   Weimar,  then    as    rector   of   the 

Ansbach  gymnasium,  and  still  later  as  rector 

of  the  celebrated  Thomas  school  at  Leipzig,  where  he  exerted 


3i]  BEGINNING  AND  GROWTH  3 1 

great  influence  in  restoring  the  ancient  classics  to  a  place  of 
honor.  Called  in  1734  to  the  new  University  of  Gottingen 
as  professor  of  eloquence  and  poetry,  he  was  appointed 
inspector  of  the  Hanover  schools,  and  soon  afterwards 
(1737)  opened  his  philological  seminary  for  the  training  of 
young  theologians  for  the  office  of  teaching. 

Fries '  speaks  of  this  work  as  being  divided  into  three 
divisions  :  1st,  a  special  scientific  one  in  philology,  mathemat- 
ics, natural  sciences,  history  and  geography ;  2d,  a  peda- 
gogical one  with  the  schools  over  which  he  was  inspector  as 
a  basis;  and  3d,  a  practical  one  through  practice  teaching 
in  the  city  schools  of  Gottingen.  The  practice-teaching, 
however,  does  not  seem  to  have  been  an  essential  part.  The 
greatest  stress  was  placed  upon  philology  and  a  more 
rational  study  of  the  languages,  Gesner,  as  a  disciple  of 
Ratich,  Comenius  and  Locke,  constantly  endeavored  to 
bring  about  reform  in  the  teaching  of  the  languages.  He 
occupied  a  position  about  half  way  between  the  realists  on 
the  one  hand,  and  the  classicists  on  the  other.  He  believed 
that  the  study  of  language  should  never  be  separated  from 
the  study  of  things,  and  for  this  reason  would  increase  the 
curriculum  of  the  classic  schools  by  adding  several  scientific 
studies  as  shown  above. 

In  his  "  Institutiones  "  he  says :  "  It  is  a  hundred  times 
easier  to  learn  a  language  by  use  and  practice  without 
grammar  than  from  the  grammar  without  use  and  practice." 
But  again  he  says,  "  I  reject  grammar  only  for  youth  as 
hurting  them  more  than  helping  them,  but  for  grown  per- 
sons it  is  in  the  highest  degree  necessary," '  His  philolog- 
ical writings  were  vigorous  and  helpful. 

A  more  representative    type  of  these  early  institutions 

*  Die  Vorbildung  der  Lehrer  fiir  das  Lehramt,  p.  23. 

•  From  Karl  von  Raumer,  Amer.  your.  Educ,  5 :  745, 


32  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [32 

was    the  philological  seminary  opened  by  Fr.  A.  Wolf  at 

the  University  of  Halle  in  1787,  a  year  made 

THE  PHiLOLOG-    memorable  in   the  history  of  German   educa- 

ICAL  SEMINARY        ,  ,  ,  ,   ,.    ,  ,       ,  ^,  ,       , 

AT  HALLE,  1787   **°"   "^  ^"^   establishment  of  the   Oberschul- 
koUegium. 

Already  in  1765  J.  S.  Semler,  "Father  of  German  Ra- 
tionalism," had  established  in  connection  with  his  theological 
seminary  at  Halle  a  course  of  lectures  intended  to  fit  stu- 
dents for  the  ofhce  of  teaching.  These  lectures  were  given 
at  first  by  the  inspector  of  the  Seminary  (Schirach,  later 
Schiitz)'  and  were  philological  in  character,  covering  the 
use  of  the  Latin  tongue  and  the  explanation  of  classic 
authors. 

Attracted  by  this  beginning,  the  State  Minis- 
voN  zEDLiTz  ^^^'  ^°"  ZcdHtz,  an  ardent  disciple  of  Basedow, 
desired  to  have  established  in  the  theological 
seminary  a  special  pedagogical  division  according  to  the 
Dessau  plan,  which  would  serve  also  for  the  training  of 
good  common  school  teachers  (Volksschullehrer).  He 
induced  Schutz  to  study  the  arrangements  at  the  Dessau 
Philanthropin,  and  in  1777  introduced  into  the  theological 
seminary  the  new  pedagogical  division. 

Two  years  later  when  Schutz,  who  had  given  the  pedagog- 
ical lectures,  was  called  to  the  professorship  of  eloquence 
and  poetry  at  Jena,  von  Zedlitz  made  use  of  the  opportunity 
to  obtain  in  his  stead  E.  C.  Trapp,  a  member  of  the  famous 
Dessau  Philanthropin.  The  work  of  Trapp,  however,  was 
disappointing.  His  pedagogical  lectures  failed  for  want  of 
students.  He  exalted  the  study  of  things  and  discouraged 
the  study  of  languages.  His  position  can  be  seen  from  the 
following  statement :  "  The  learning  of  foreign  languages  is 
one  of  the  greatest  evils  which  afiflict  the  schools,  especially 
in  Germany,  and  which  hinder  the  progress  of  men  to  per- 

'  Fries,  Die  Vorbildung  der  Lehrer  fiir  das  Lekramt,  p.  23. 


33  j  BEGINNING  AND  GROIVTH  33 

fection  and  happiness."  '  Such  views  were  out  of  harmony 
with  the  place  and  time,  and  made  it  necessary  for  Trapp  to 
resign,  which  he  did  in  1782. 

A  small  practice  school  had  been  established  in  connec- 
tion with  the  seminary,  but  like  the  pedagogical  lectures  it 
had  failed  for  want  of  members. 

At  this  time  Fr.  A.  Wolf,  a  youth  of  twenty-two,  rector  of 
the  Os*^erode  gymnasium,  was  attracting  much  attention 
through  his  philological  writings.  The  one  entitled  "  Plato's 
Symposium  "  had  just  appeared  and  received  unusual  appre- 
ciation. Minister  von  Zedlitz,  still  desirous  of  carrying  for- 
ward the  pedagogical  work,  felt  that  in  Wolf  he  would  have 
an  especially  strong  man  for  the  position.  Wolf  was  conse- 
quently chosen  not  only  a  professor  of  philology  but  also  of 
pedagogy,  and  it  was  further  stipulated  that  he  should  give 
annually  a  free  course  of  pedagogical  lectures,  should  him- 
self instruct  in  and  have  supervision  over  the  teachers'  semi- 
nary, and  offer  model  lessons  in  teaching.  Disgusted  with 
the  superficiality  of  the  philanthropinists  and  feeling  himself 
unsuited  to  the  work,  he  allowed  the  educational  institution 
to  go  down,  gave  up  the  pedagogical  professorship  and  be- 
came professor  of  eloquence  instead. 

Wolf  now  set  himself  to  work  to  overcome 


NATURE   AND 


the    mcreasmg    opposition    to    the    humanities 

AIM  OF  THE 

SEMINARY  ^y  oneri'ig  ^  more  thorough  and  extended 
study  of  the  classics.  He  believed  also  that 
the  instruction  in  the  higher  schools  could  never  reach  its 
greatest  efficiency  while  the  recruiting  of  teachers  depended 
almost  wholly  on  the  theologians.  There  should  be  a  body 
of  teachers  trained  especially  for  these  schools.  It  was  for' 
these  reasons  that  he  established  in  1787  his  philological 
seminary,  the  first  institution  whose  purpose  was  to  edu- 
cate   teachers    for    the    higher    schools    without    regard    to 

^Amer.  your.  Educ,  6 :  200.     Trans,  from  Karl  von  Raumer. 


34  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [^34 

theology.  Having  received  the  sanction  of  the  Higher 
School  Board  (Ober-Schulkollegium)  the  seminary  was 
opened  in  the  fall  of  1787  with  twelve  regular  members 
selected  on  examination  from  among  those  who  had  spent 
at  least  one  year  in  the  university.  The  members  thus 
selected  continued  in  the  seminary  for  the  next  two  years  of 
their  university  course. 

The  work  of  the  seminary  consisted  in  the  interpretation 
of  ancient  authors,  discussions  by  the  members  in  Latin  of 
written  exercises  and  theses,  assigned  either  beforehand,  or 
at  the  moment,  by  the  director.  The  more  advanced  mem- 
bers had  some  practice  in  the  Latin  school  of  the  Orphan 
House  at  Halle. 

The  aim  of  the  seminary  was  two-fold,  (i)  to  extend  and 
deepen  the  knowledge  of  the  classics,  and  (2)  to  produce 
effective  classical  masters  for  the  gymnasiums  and  higher 
Latin  schools. 

Though  not  so  intended  by  the  School  Board 
and  probably  not  by  Wolf,  the  pedagogical  side 

PEDAGOGY  ^  ■'  ^  /  .  . 

received  but  little  attention.  The  growing  in- 
terest in  philology  caused  this  subject  to  be  given  all  the 
time. 

Fries  in  speaking  of  this  feature  of  the  school  says,  "  As  a 
fact  the  didactic  guidance  never  became  really  efficient,  for  in 
the  first  years  they  were  content  to  send  from  time  to  time  for 
a  few  of  the  pupils  from  the  orphan  asylum  for  the  exercise 
in  the  Seminary  and  only  in  the  winter  of  1799  were  the  les- 
sons by  the  students  arranged  in  a  few  classes  of  the  Latin 
school.  These,  however,  had  little  purpose,  as  the  members 
were  cast  chiefly  upon  themselves."  ' 

"The  seminary  was  and  remained  a  philological  one,  and 
as  such  became  a  model  and  influential,  for  its  leader,  a  sub- 
ject of  entire  satisfaction  and  just  pride,  since  the  youth  here 

1  Vorbildung  der  Lehrer  fiir  das  Lehramt,  p.  26. 


33]  BEGINNING  AND  GROWTH  35 

gained  the  enthusiasm  for  archaeology,  which  later  in  their 
official  positions  caused  them  to  carry  out  and  uphold  the 
humanistic  principle  of  instruction  in  higher  education,  which 
has  remained  the  standard  until  the  present."  ' 

Wolf  remained  with  the  seminary  for  twenty  years,  or  until 
the  closing  of  the  university  by  Napoleon  after  the  battle  of 
Jena,  when  he  was  called  as  a  member  of  the  department  of 
education  to  Berlin. 

The  further  development  of  this  institution  shows  how  at 
first  a  purely  philological  and  later  a  pedagogical  seminary 
grew  out  of  the  theological  faculty. 

It  was  not  until  the  regulations  of  181 7  that  the  training 
of  "skillful  teachers  for  the  gymnasiums"  received  special 
attention,  and  then  more  especially  through  exercises  in- 
tended to  give  a  general  style  in  Latin.""  It  is  fitting  to  re- 
mark, however,  that  in  later  life  Wolf  laid  greater  stress  upon 
pedagogical  training  and  felt  that  the  absence  of  it  had  been 
one  of  the  weaknesses  at  Halle. 

Following  this  beginning,  many  other  similar 


OTHER 


philological  seminaries  sprang  up  in  the  various 

PHILOLOGICAL  .... 

SEMINARIES  univcrsitics.  Among  the  earlier  ones  may  be 
mentioned  the  philological  seminary  at  Kiel, 
1777;  the  philological-pedagogical  seminary  at  Helmstedt, 
1779;  the  philological  and  pedagogical  joint  seminaries  at 
Heidelberg,  1809;  the  philological  seminary  at  Konigsberg, 
1 8 10  (distinct  from  the  pedagogical  seminary  of  Herbart)  ; 
the  philological  seminaries  of  Berlin  and  Breslau,  1812;  the 
renowned  philological  seminary  at  Bonn  and  the  philological 
seminary  of  Griefswald,  1822. 

The  first,  and  in  many  instances  the  only,  object  of  these 
seminaries  was  a  purely  academic  one,  laying  the  foundation 
for  research  and   extending  the  knowledge  of  the  classics 

*  Vorbildung  der  Lehrer  jur  das  Lekranit,  p.  26. 
'Barnard,  Amer.  Jour.  Educ,  17:  485. 


36  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [36 

In  voting  to  establish  the  philological  seminary  at  Konigs- 
berg,  Schleiermacher,  a  member  of  the  school  council,  said : 
"  The  first  object  is  only  to  excite  a  love  for  philology,  and 
after  this  is  awakened  and  formed,  when  an  individual  incli- 
nation is  developed,  free  play  must  be  given  to  it  without 
any  hesitation ;  but  in  every  way  must  prevent  young  men 
from  limiting  themselves  to  a  narrow  sphere  and  from  finding 
their  vocation  therein."  ^ 

Matthew  Arnold,  in  speaking  of  the  training  of  teachers, 
says :  "  Every  Prussian  university  has  a  philological  semi- 
nary or  group  of  exhibitioners^much  like  that  which  I  have 
described  at  Halle,  not  more  than  twelve  in  number,  with  a 
two  years'  course  following  one  year's  academic  study,  and 
alterthumwissenschaft  (archaeology)  being  the  object  pur- 
sued. There  are  generally  two  professors  especially  attached 
to  the  seminary,  one  for  Greek  and  the  other  for  Latin."  ^ 

This  revival  in  learning  spread,  as  might  well 

SPREAD  OF  THE    ,  ,  11, 

MOVEMENT  havc  bccn  expected,  to  other  departments  of 
the  universities,  especially  to  the  departments 
of  history,  mathematics  and  the  natural  sciences.  The  deeper 
study  of  the  classics  made  it  necessary  to  enter  into  the  whole 
life  of  the  people,  and  history  became  especially  prominent. 
The  fruit  of  this  period  is  seen  in  such  names  as  Wolf, 
Heyne,  Buttmann,  Bekker,  Ritschl,  Dindorf,  Niebuhr,  Ger- 
hard, O.  Jahn,  E.  Curtius,  Mommsen  and  many  others  of 
equal  renown. 

Although  the   primary  object  of   these  de- 

EFFECT  ON 

TEACHING  partmental  seminaries,  like  those  described 
above,  was  for  scientific  purposes,  they  greatly 
influenced  the  teaching  profession  by  overcoming  formalism 
and  creating  a  love  for  scholarship  and  investigation. 

Had    it   not  been   for  the    activity  of   the    central   school 

^  Barnard's  A^ational  Education  in  the  German  States,  p.  485. 
'  Arnold's  Higher  Schools  and  Universities  in  Germany,  p.  74. 


37]  BEGINNING  AND  GROWTH  T^y 

board  in  upholding  the  pedagogical  interest  of  the  school, 
this  growth  and  enthusiasm  in  academic  learning  and  the 
better  teaching  resulting  therefrom  might  of  itself  have  been 
felt  as  sufficient  and  prevented  longer  the  professional  train- 
ing of  secondary  teachers. 

We  have  already  had  occasion  to  refer  to  the 
THE  GYMNAsiAL  ^ffo^ts   of   statc  miuistcr  von  Zedlitz  in  trying 

SEMINARY  AT  .  tt     11 

BERLIN  ^^  establish  a  pedagogical  seminary  at  Halle 
for  the  training  of  secondary  teachers  accord- 
ing to  the  model  of  the  Dessau  philanthropin.  These 
efforts  at  Halle  were  unsuccessful  through  the  unexpected  op- 
position of  Wolf;  however,  in  the  same  year  with  this  failure 
at  Halle  (1787),  von  Zedlitz  instructed  Fr.  Gedike,  director 
of  the  Friedrich  Werdersche  Gymnasium,  and  member  of  the 
Oberschulkollegium  to  prepare  a  suitable  plan  for  a  peda- 
gogical seminary  to  be  connected  with  the  Gymnasium, 
which  with  but  slight  modifications  met  the  approval  of  the 
school  authorities.  The  seminary  was  connected  with  the 
Friedrich  Werdersche  Gymmasium  of  which  Gedike  was 
director,  and  opened  with  five  regular  members  in  the  spring 
of  1788.  It  was  the  first  institution  of  its  kind  founded  by 
the  state  and  through  State  appropriation,  and  became  at 
once  the  model  of  all  similar  institutions. 

The  aim  of  the  school,  as  indicated   in   the 

ITS  PURPOSE  .,.,,,,  -1 

plan,  was  "  to  tram  skillful  and  experienced 
teachers  for  the  Gymnasiums  and  Higher  Latin  Schools." 
The  work  was  to  be  both  theoretical  and  practical,  the  , 
former  through  a  study  of  the  best  schools  and  educational 
literature,  supplemented  by  pedagogical  treatises  prepared 
by  the  students ;  the  latter  through  visitation  and  observa- 
tion of  the  regular  school  work,  by  assisting  in  the  class 
work  of  the  regular  teachers,  by  oversight  and  care  of 
indifferent  or  backward  pupils,  and  by  actual  teaching 
according  to  instructions  and  under  the  supervision  of  the 


CONDITION  OF 


38  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [38 

director  and  the  three   other   teachers  of   the   Gymnasium 
selected  for  this  purpose. 

Admission  to  the  seminary  was  conditioned 
on    having  completed   their  university  studies 
and  having  passed  an  examination  including  a 
test  lesson.       Gedike    had    wished    to    include    also    strong 
graduates   of  the   Gymnasium   who   had   not   pursued   uni- 
versity studies,  but  in  this  he  was  overruled. 

The    members    received    a    stipend    of    150 

PRACTICE-  .      ,  ,  ,  _  ,   ,.  , 

TTTAr^uT^r^      thalers  each,  and  were   at  first  obliged  to   m- 

TEACHING  " 

struct  10  hours  per  week  in  the  different  classes 
of  the  gymnasium,  the  subjects  changing  half-yearly.  They 
were  further  required  to  assist  the  ordinary  teachers  in 
correcting  the  written  work  of  the  pupils,  and  were  obliged 
to  meet  in  monthly  conferences,  open  to  all  teachers  of  the 
gymnasium,  to  receive  criticism  and  engage  in  pedagogical 
discussions. 

Owing  to  the  amount  of  teaching  and  class  assistance  re- 
quired of  the  seminarists  the  theoretical  side  was  much 
neglected;  nevertheless,  the  school  prospered  and  many  of 
the  candidates  were  called  directly  from  the  seminary  to 
important  school  positions. 

'  In  1793  Gedike  became  director  of  the  Ber- 

TRANSFER  AND  y^^  Gymuasium  of  the  grauen  Kloster,  and  the 

OTHER  CHANGES 

OF  THE  SCHOOL  scmmary  passed  over  with  him  to  the  new 
position.  It  was  during  this  year  that  he 
organized  a  philological  society  composed  of  seminarists 
who  met  monthly  to  work  out  and  discuss  Latin  essays  on 
philological  subjects.  This  step  was  fraught  with  great 
consequences  for  the  after-development  of  the  school,  and 
not  infrequently  caused  its  pedagogical  character  to  be  lost 
sight  of.  Regarding  this  feature  Rein  has  expressed  himself 
as  follows :  "The  pedagogical  interest  of  the  i8th  century 
began  more  and  more  to  retreat  before  the  philological  one 


39]  BEGIXNING  AND  GROWTH  35. 

of  the  19th  century,  and  under  the  guidance  of  Boeckh 
(1819-1867J  the  seminary  acquired  a  purely  philological 
character."  '  This  was  equally  true  during  the  directorship 
of  Bonitz,  1867-1875.^  During  part  of  the  time  of  Boeckh's 
administration  he  was  director  both  of  the  gymnasial  seminary 
and  of  the  philological  seminary  of  the  university,  showing 
the  close  relation  existing  between  the  schoolmaster  and 
philology. 

The  further  development  of  this  seminary  contains  much 
of  interest.  First,  on  account  of  its  double  character,  philo- 
logical and  pedagogical,  now  one,  now  the  other  subject  was 
accorded  the  greater  attention.  Second,  there  was  the  readi- 
ness with  which  the  seminary  was  transferred  from  one  gym- 
nasium to  another  in  order  to  meet  the  convenience  of  the 
director. 3  Third,  the  amount  of  time  devoted  to  teaching 
and  practical  school  affairs  as  compared  with  their  omission 
in  most  of  the  seminaries  connected  with  the  universities. 

At  present  this  seminary  is  connected  with  the  Kollnische 
Gymnasium  in  Berlin,  and  still  retains  all  the  essential 
features  of  the  original  plan  of  1787,  together  with  the  classi- 
cal character  added  to  it  by  its  founder  in  1793. 

Other  pedagogical  seminaries,  modeled  after 
OTHER        ^j^g  above  plan,  have  been  established  at  Stettin 

GYMNASTICAL  ^     ^     -^  ,  „  t^..      .,  r.^Tv/r  i 

SEMINARIES     I oO",  Brcslau   1813,  Konigsberg   1861,  Magde- 
burg, Danzig   and    Posen    18S4,   Kassel    1885, 
Miinster  1888  and  Koblenz  1889. 

Aside  from  the  above  institutions  there  have 

PEDAGOGICAL      ,  ,  ,  ...... 

SEMINARIES     "^^"  formed  many  pedagogical   seminaries  in 
connection    with    the  different    universities,    oi 

'Rein,  Gymnasial  Seminar,  Encyc,  3:  128. 

^  Compare  Fries,  Die  Vorbildttng  der  Lehrer  fiir  das  Lehramt,  p.  55. 

'  At  one  time  the  length  of  membership  was  extended  to  four  years,  and  the 
eight  seminarists  were  to  give  six  lessons  per  week  in  alternate  years  in  all  the 
four  gymnasiums  of  Berlin. 


40  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [40 

which  the  one  founded  by  J.  F.  Herbart  in  Konigsberg, 
1 8 TO,  may  be  taken  as  a  type.  These  differ  from  the  phil- 
ological seminaries  above  described  in  that  they  are  pro- 
iessional  rather  than  academic,  dealing  with  the  subjects  of 
philosophy,  psychology,  pedagogy  and  ethics  instead  of  the 
classics  and  philology. 

They  differ  from  the  gymnasial  seminaries  in  that  their 
students  have  not  yet  completed  their  university  course,  and 
.are  engaged  in  academic  study  along  with  their  professional 
studies.  They  also  give  more  attention  to  theory  and  less 
to  practice. 

Other  seminaries  of  this  kind,  not  including  the  ones 
already  mentioned  at  Helmstedt  1779,  and  at  Heidelberg 
1809,  were  those  established  at  Halle  1829  (a  reorganiza- 
tion), at  Kiel  1827,  Jena  1832,  Gottingen  1838,  Leipzig 
1861,  and  Strasburg  1876-92.  "There  are  seven  univer- 
sity seminaries  in  Germany,  distributed  as  follows:  I.  Giving 
theoretical  instruction  only — Gottingen.  U.  Combining 
theory  with  practice,  {a)  In  connection  with  regular 
organized  gymnasiums  —  Heidelberg,  Leipzig,  Miinster, 
Tubingen,  Freiberg.  {b)  Having  a  model  school  of  its 
own — Jena.  .  .  .  The  seminaries  at  Halle,  Strasburg,  Konigs- 
berg and  Kiel,  which  were  renowned,  are  all  discontinued."' 
These   seminaries  do   not  differ  much  in  the 

THE   AIM    AND  •     i  i  i  t  r/-  •   i  i    i         •  i 

essentials,  but  they  difier  considerably  in  the 
details,  due  for  the  most  part  to  the  local  con- 
ditions through  which  they  have  developed.  They  aim  to 
give  the  student  a  thorough  and  systematic  knowledge  of 
the  more  important  pedagogical  problems,  especially  in  so 
far  as  they  relate  to  German  education.  In  most  of  them 
the  classics  receive  a  large  share  of  attention,  though  pro- 
bably not  more  than  is  due  in  a  country  where  the  languages 
-.comprise  so  prominent  a  part  of  the  curriculum. 

'  Bolton,  The  Secondary  School  System  of  Germany,  p.  91-92. 


4i]  BEGINNING  AND  GROWTH  41 

The  two  best  known  examples,  Leipzig  and  Jena,  are  al- 
ready quite  familiar  to  American  readers.  Fries  describes 
the  plan  of  the  seminary  at  Heidelberg  as  follows :  "Now 
since  1876  the  gymnasial  director  Uhlig,  who  is  at  the  same 
time  Honorary  Professor  of  Pedagogy  and  of  Philology  at 
the  University,  conducts  the  seminary,  into  which  the 
students  may  enter  after  two  years'  study.  They  hear  his 
pedagogical  lectures  and  are  introduced  under  his  guidance 
into  practice  at  the  gymnasium.  Here  they  begin  with  the 
middle  classes,  then  descend  to  the  lower,  finally  concluding 
with  Prima.  It  appears  always  to  be  only  a  question  of 
single  lessons  for  which  the  students  prepare  themselves 
carefully  under  the  guidance  of  the  director  and  by  visiting 
the  instruction  in  question.  The  director  and  the  teacher  of 
the  subject  are  present  at  the  lesson,  but  only  the  former 
criticises.  So,  for  instance,  the  practice-teachings  of  the 
classical  philologists  follow  each  other  after  this  order: 
Caesar  or  Ovid  in  Obertertia,  Xenophon  in  Untersekunda, 
Greek  grammar  in  Untertertia,  history  in  Quarta,  German  in 
Quarta  or  Quinta,  Latin  in  Quinta  or  Sexta,  Herodotus, 
Homer,  Livius  or  Virgil,  and  history  in  Secunda,  Sophocles, 
Plato,  Demosthenes  or  Thucydides,  Horace,  Tacitus  or 
Cicero  in  Prima.  Accompanying  these  are  common  peda- 
gogical discussions  in  weekly  sessions  which,  according  to  a 
communication  of  Uhlig,  have  been  further  extended  in 
recent  times.  The  themes  for  the  reports  are  determined  at 
the  beginning  of  the  semester  and  are  taken  from  the  most 
diverse  fields.  For  instance.  General  Didactics,  Classical 
School  Readers,  the  Method  of  Grammatical  Instruction ; 
also  the  demands  of  Hygiene,  Manual  Training  and  Child 
Play  are  presented  for  consideration."' 

Courses  in  pedagogy  are  offered  in  most  of  the  German 
universities,   usually   under  the  department   of    philosophy, 

^  Fries,  Die  Vorbildung  der  Lehrer  fur  das  Lehramt,  p.  30. 


42  TRAINING  OF  SECONDAR\    TEACHERS  [42 

but  these  seem   to  be  arranged   rather  with  the  thought  of 

culture    and   for    the   purpose  of    meeting  the 

UNIVERSITY     professional  requirements  of  the  state  examina- 

LECTURES   ON        .  . 

PEDAGOGY  ^"^^  'u\-avl  seriously  to  fit  students  for  the  office 
of  teaching.  These  pedagogical  lectures,  like 
the  pedagogical  seminaries  above  described,  do  not  seem  to 
be  considered  as  an  essential  function  of  the  university,  but 
rather  as  additions  that  may  come  and  go  with  the  individual 
creating  them  ;  for  example,  the  discontinuation  of  the  semi- 
nary at  Konigsberg  on  the  departure  of  Herbart. 

Out    of    this  educational  development  there 
DIFFERENT     havc  comc  several  forms  of  institutions  for  the 

FORMS   OF  r  •  1    .        •     •  ,     ,  i  i 

TEACHERS'     proisssional  traming  of  teachers,  the  more  im- 

sEMiNARiEs  portant  of  which  are  :  I.  For  elementary  schools  ; 
(a)  normal  schools,  {b)  seminaries  in  con- 
nection with  elementary  schools  ;  II.  For  secondary  schools  ; 
{a)  gymnasial  seminaries,  {b)  the  university  seminary  with 
practice  school,  (<:)  the  university  seminary  without  practice 
school. 

Notwithstanding  the  many  excellent  institutions  for  the 
professional  training  of  secondary  teachers,  none  as  yet  have 
met  the  full  approval  of  the  German  people.  Both  the  uni- 
versity seminary  with  provisions  for  practice  teaching  and 
the  gymnasial  seminary  have  enthusiastic  supporters,  the 
latter  in  greater  numbers.  In  the  former  the  student  is  able 
to  carry  on  his  special  university  studies  along  with  his 
pedagogical  instruction,  thereby  giving  the  latter  an  added 
value — though  it  is  also  argued  that  this  division  of  inter- 
est is  apt  to  weaken  the  work  in  both  fields.  Another  point 
made  in  favor  of  the  university  seminary  is  the  fact  that 
every  science  carries  with  it  a  certain  didactical  principle 
which  can  best  be  taught  in  connection  with  the  science 
itself. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  argued   in  favor  of  the  gymnasial 


43]  BEGINXING  AAD  GROWTH  43 

seminary  that  the  students  having  completed  their  univer- 
sity studies  are  better  qualified  and  are  able  to  give  their 
whole  time  to  the  professional  side  under  conditions  the 
most  natural  and  also  the  most  favorable  to  success.  How- 
ever, it  has  been  felt  that  even  here  the  student  should 
be  given  opportunity  to  pursue  still  further  his  scientific 
studies.' 

As    in    the   elementary   schools,    so    in    the 
PROFESSIONAL  sccondary,   professional    training    has    become 

TRAINING  AN       .1  •  ,  ,  j.         tU         4-     -,^T,^^->» 

the  siJie  qua  non  of  entrance  to  the  teachers 

ESSENTIAL  ^ 

REQUIREMENT  profcssion,  and  the  gymnasial  seminaries  are 
considered  to  be  the  best  institutions  for  this 
purpose.  They  have  met  the  favor  of  the  provincial  school 
boards  and  have  multiplied  out  of  proportion  to  other  forms 
of  teachers'  seminaries.  They  aim  to  furnish  the  student 
with  a  large  amount  of  practice  teaching  under  expert  guid- 
ance, and  to  bring  into  closer  relation  theoretical  instruc- 
tion and  practical  application.  They  are  based  on  the  idea 
that  thoroughness  in  subject-matter  should  precede  the 
purely  professional  study.  In  this  they  differ  from  normal 
schools. 

To  become  a  member  of  a  gymnasial  semi- 
nary one  must  have  passed  the  State  examina- 

OF  TO-DAY  •'  ^ 

tion  (Staats-Priifung)  which  presupposes  a  cer- 
tificate of  graduation  from  gymnasium,  or  in  special  cases 
from  the  real  gymnasium  or  higher  real  school,  and  at  least 
three  years'  special  study  in  the  university.  The  number  of 
candidates  at  any  one  time  is  usually  limited  to  six.  The 
seminary  is  connected  with  the  gymnasium  under  the  im- 
mediate supervision  of  the  director  and  the  general  over- 
sight of  the  provincial  school  board. 

The    course    consists    of    two    years — a    seminary    year 

^  See  under  Pedagogische  Seminar  fiir  hokere  Sc/iulen,  Schmid  Encyc,  2d  Ed., 
5 :  688  f. 


/       ^       Of  THE 


OF  THE 

UNIVE" 


44  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [44 

(seminar-jahr)  and  a  trial  year  (probe-jahr).  The  former 
is  devoted  principally  to  a  study  of  the  various  educational 
problems  connected  with  secondary  education,  including 
theory  and  practice,  organization  and  management,  methods 
of  instruction,  recent  educational  history,  school  hygiene 
and  the  use  of  apparatus  and  other  helps  in  teaching.  Dur- 
ing the  first  year  the  student  devotes  considerable  time  in 
visiting  and  observing  the  regular  school  work.  He  visits 
the  classes  in  which  his  own  subjects  lie,  assists  the  regular 
teachers,  and  in  the  latter  half  of  the  year  does  some  teach- 
ing under  the  guidance  and  criticism  of  the  director  and 
other  teachers  of  the  seminary.  If  his  work  has  been  satis- 
factory throughout  the  year,  he  is  permitted  to  go  on  to  the 
second  or  trial  year.  The  trial  year  may  be  spent  in  the 
same  gymnasium,  though  it  is  often  spent  at  another  insti- 
tution. It  is  devoted  to  teaching  (about  ten  hours  per ; 
week)  and  to  the  practical  application  of  the  pedagogical 
principles  learned  during  the  first  year.  All  this  takes 
place  under  the  immediate  guidance  of  the  director  and 
other  teachers.  The  candidate,  however,  is  given  full  charge 
and  responsibility  for  the  class.  He  continues  his  theoretical 
studies  and  attends  weekly  conferences  for  the  considera- 
tion and  discussion  of  educational  problems  as  in  the  former 
year.  At  the  close  of  the  seminary  year  the  candidate  pre- 
sents a  thesis  on  some  pedagogical  subject  selected  by  the 
director,  and  at  the  end  of  the  trial  year  he  hands  in  a  report 
of  his  teaching  and  of  his  own  judgment  in  regard  to  the  re- 
sults. These,  together  with  the  reports  of  the  director  and 
of  the  departmental  teachers  are  submitted  to  the  provincial 
school  board  for  final  judgment.  If  the  character  and  work 
of  the  candidate  have  been  satisfactory  throughout,  he  is 
given  a  certificate  to  teach  in  the  grades  for  which  he  is 
especially  qualified  by  scientific  study.  "  Since  the  higher 
educational     institutions    in    Germany    have     gained    more 


45]  BEGINNING  AND  GROWTH  4^ 

definite  shapes  and  aims,  the  conviction  has  become  current 
in  increasing  measure  that  for  the  teachers  of  these  schools 
there  is  demanded,  besides  the  thorough  scientific  culture,  a 
special  pedagogical  preparation  for  the  office  of  teaching, 
and  that  the  otherwise  very  beneficial  arrangement  of  a  trial 
year  does  not  answer  all  needs."'  This  was  spoken  in  the 
early  eighties,  before  the  addition  of  the  seminary  year,  but 
it  shows  the  current  of  educational  thought. 

If  we  seek  the    motives  out  of  which   have 

PEDAGOGICAL  .  .  .  ^r     ■  ■  • 

MOTIVES  THAT  g^o^n  thcse  complex  though  efficient  institu- 
HAVE  SHAPED  tious  foT  the  profcssioual  training  of  secondary 
PROFESSIONAL   tcachcrs,  we  find  them  in  at  least  two  principal, 

TRAINING  .1  1,  •  f  T-U  4.U 

though  opposing,  forces.  Ihe  one  was  the  rea- 
listic or  scientific  movement  in  education  already  mentioned  as 
the  principal  cause  in  the  establishment  of  normal  schools. 
The  other  was  the  reaction  of  humanism  against  the  inroads 
of  realism,  or  perhaps  better,  a  systematic  effort  to 
strengthen  and  enrich  the  classics  by  applying  the  scientific 
method  of  investigation. 

In  the  former  movement  the  teaching  of  Ratich,  Comenius, 
Locke  and  Rousseau  became  crystallized  by  Basedow  in  his 
experimental  school  at  Dessau,  which  gave  great  promise 
and  furnished  the  school  authorities  with  a  concrete  idea  for 
the  new  pedagogical  seminaries.  The  normal  schools  had 
already  been  established  and  were  attracting  considerable 
attention.  This  but  increased  the  desire  to  have  teachers 
trained  in  the  new  ideas  and  in  the  new  methods  as  well  for 
secondary  as  for  elementary  education. 

The  first  impetus  came  from  this  realistic  movement 
which  made  itself  felt  in  elementary  education  and  then 
reacted  upon  higher  education.  It  was  now  known  as  the 
philanthropic  movement,  but  it  was  the  same  spirit  under  a 
new   dress.     As   the    reader  will   remember,  State   Minister 

^  Schmid,  Encyc.  des  Erziehungs-und  U titer richtswesen,  2  Aufl.,  5  :  688. 


46  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [46 

von  Zedlitz  was  in  full  sympathy  with  the  movement,  and 
backed  by  the  school  authorities  it  found  its  way  into  the 
universities  and  became  the  basis  of  the  first  gymnasial 
seminary  under  Gedike  in  Berlin. 

In  establishing  pedagogical  seminaries  it  was  natural  that 
they  should  be  connected  with  departments  already  in  exist- 
ence. The  departments  that  seemed  best  fitted  to  train 
teachers  for  the  gymnasiums,  aside  from  theology,  were  the 
language  departments,  hence  the  relation  of  pedagogy  to 
philology.  For  this  reason  the  state  minister  of  education 
did  not  hesitate  to  trust  his  new  pedagogical  seminary  at 
Halle  in  the  hands  of  a  trained  philologist.  For  like  reason 
the  government  authorized  J.  M.  Gesner,  professor  of  ancient 
literature  at  Gottingen,  to  establish  the  first  philological 
seminary  with  the  expressed  object  of  training  theologians 
for  the  oflfice  of  teaching.' 

There  was  another  movement,  however,  which  if  less 
noisy,  was  none  the  less  powerful  in  shaping  the  educational 
legislation  of  the  country.  It  was  the  movement  which  Dr. 
Russell  has  described  under  the  title  of  the  "New  Human- 
ism."^ The  scientific  spirit  had  taken  hold  of  the  people  and 
was  making  great  changes  in  educational  affairs.  The  Ger- 
man language  had  given  expression  to  many  classics.  It 
even  seemed  possible  to  buifd  up  an  acceptable  curriculum 
for  the  higher  schools  without  either  Greek  or  Latin.  It  was 
at  this  juncture  that  the  great  scholars,  like  Gesner,  Heyne, 
Wolf  and  others,  began  to  apply  the  scientific  spirit  to  a 
deeper  study  of  classical  literature.  Call  it  a  revolt  against 
formalism,  or  a  reaction  against  the  spread  of  realism,  never- 
theless, it  was  an  intelligent  movement  which  gave  to  the 
classics  new  life  and  new  power.     Other  departments  of  the 

'  Gesner,  like  many  others,  while  a  classicist,  had  strong  realistic  or  utilitarian 
tendencies. 

'  German  Higher  Schools,  p.  70. 


.yl  BEGINNING  AND  GROWTH  47 

universities  were  stimulated  and  benefited.  Philological 
seminaries  were  established  in  the  different  universities  and 
became  at  once  centers  of  thought  and  educational  activity. 
At  first  the  seminaries  had  a  double  object,  («)  "to  form 
effective  classical  masters  for  the  higher  schools,"  and  {b) 
"  to  excite  in  all  a  love  for  philology."  But  they  soon 
neglected  or  gave  up  entirely  the  former  object  and  devoted 
all  attention  to  the  latter.  "  The  seminars  are  the  real 
nurseries  of  scientific  research.  It  is  true  that  their  pur- 
pose was  originally  different.  The  earliest  of  their  kind,  the 
philological  seminars  founded  in  the  last  century  in  Halle 
or  Gottingen  were,  or  were  intended  to  be,  pedagogical 
seminars  for  future  teachers  in  the  classical  schools ;  but  in 
fact  they  were,  (especially  that  of  F.  A.  Wolf)  before  all  else, 
institutions  in  which  the  technique  of  philological  research 
was  taught,  and  this  is  true  in  a  still  higher  degree  of  the 
philological  seminaries  and  societies  conducted  in  the  present 
century  by  G.  Hermann,  F.  Thiersch,  F.  Ritchl  and  others, 
all  of  them  being  schools  for  philologians,  not  teachers." ' 
Their  purpose  has  been  to  encourage  scientific  research, 
rather  than  to  give  training  in  the  practical  application  of 
knowledge,  and  yet  they  have  created  a  love  for  scholarship 
that  has  greatly  modified  the  form  of  teachers'  seminaries 
for  secondary  education.  It  seems  strange  that  to-day  the 
greatest  opposition  to  the  professional  training  of  teachers 
should  come  from  the  language  departments  where  such 
training  was  first  offered.  It  may  be  due  in  part  to  tradition, 
in  part  to  accumulated  experiences  which  have  given  to 
these  subjects  somewhat  fixed  forms  of  treatment,  and  in 
part  to  the  fact  that  scholarship,  in  itself  an  essential  requi- 
site of  a  successful  teacher,  has  been  given  undue  promi- 
nence. 

^  F.  Paulsen,    German   Universities,   Character  and  Historical    Development 
p.  157. 


48  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [48 

The  spirit  of  German  nationalism  which  took  hold  of  the 
German  people  after  the  battle  of  Jena  had  great  influence 
in  modifying  the  schools  of  the  country  and  deserves  to  be 
mentioned  among  the  forces.  But  principally  out  of  the 
humanistic  desire  for  culture  and  the  philanthropic  desire  for 
utility,  the  present  institutions  for  the  professional  training, 
of  secondary  teachers  have  developed. 

They  differ  from  the  normal  schools  in  demanding  a 
greater  degree  of  scholarship  and  professional  training;  in 
divorcing  the  academic  from  the  professional  subjects ;  and 
in  omitting  the  review  or  further  drill  in  the  academic  sub- 
jects with  the  view  of  teaching  them. 

An  account  of  the  development  of  the  insti- 

FRANCE    AND  .  ,  ,  ,.,,..  ,   ,  i 

ENGLAND  tutions  for  the  professional  trammg  of  teachers 
in  France  and  in  England  would  be  especially 
interesting,  and  the  well-planned  and  far-reaching  system  of 
France  affords  many  valuable  lessons  for  the  student  of  edu- 
cation. But  as  neither  of  these  systems  has  exerted  anything 
like  the  influence  of  Germany  on  the  development  of  the 
professional  training  of  teachers  in  the  United  States,  their 
history  may  be  omitted  or  reserved  for  a  future  article. 

REFERENCES. 
Beyer,  O.  W.,  Zur  Errichtung  pddagogischer  Lehrstuhle  an  ujtserer  Universi- 

tdten,  Langensalza,  1895.     72  pp. 
Bose,  G.,  Zur  Sei7iinarrefo7-mfrage.     Ein  Beitrag  zur  Losung  derselbeii,  unter 

specieller  Rucksicht  und  Beziehung  auf  die  Einrichtungen  des  evange- 

lischett  VolksschtiUehrer seminar  zu  Oldenburg.    Oldenburg,  1872.  43  pp. 
Bliedner,  Karl,   Volkmar  Stay  und  das  pddaqogische  Universiidts-semitiar,  188b. 

Reichardt,  Leipzig.     366  pp. 
Brzoska,  H.  G.,  Die  Notwendi^keii  pddagogischer  Seminar e  auf  der  Universitdt 

und  ihre  zweckmdssi^e  Einrichtun^.     Neu.  hrsg.  von  IVilhelm  Rein. 

Leipzig,  1887. 
Ernst,    Karl,   Theorie  und  Praxis  des pddagogischen  Seminar.     In  Pddagoqische 

Siudien,  neue  Folge,  iSg3.     V.  13,  193-223  pp. 
Frick,  O.  P.  M.,  Das  Setninarium  praeceptorum  an  den  Franckeschen  Stifiunq- 

en    zu    Halle.      Ein    Beitrag    zur    Losunq    der   Lehrerbildungsfraqe. 

Halle,  1883.     62  pp. 


^g-\  BEGLVA'/NG  AND  GROWTH  49 

Frick,  O,  Piida^o^sche  uud  didaktische  Ahhandlun^en.     Das  Semi nari urn  prae- 

ceptoyiim.     Halle,  1893. 
Frick,  O.,  and  Meier,  H.,  Lehrprohen  iind  I.ehrgdn^e  aus  der  Praxis  der  Gym- 

nasien  tind  Keahchulen.     Halle,  1890.     Heft  23,  pp.  111-121;    Heft 

24,  pp.  135-140. 
Fries,  Wilhelm,  Die  Vorhildim^  der  I.ehrer  Jiir  das  Lehramt.     Munchen,  1895. 

Vni  +  206  pp. 

Handbuch    der    Erziehungs    und    Unterrichtslehre  fiir   hohere  Schulen. 

Herausgegeben    von    Dr.   A.    Bamiieister.     Munchen,    1896.     Vol.    2, 

Part  I. 
Y\o\\\\z\\,Q\\%\.z.v,  Die  Erziehun^esschule.     Wien,  1877.     V -|- 42  pp.      [In  Pdda- 

gogische  Sittdien,  18S1.     V.  2,  No.  18.) 
Hoffman,  R.,  Die  praktische  Vorbildung  zut?t  h'oheren  Schulatni  auf  der   Uni- 

versitdt.     Leipzig,  i88i.     43  pp. 
Keferstein,  Horst,  Die pddagogische  Vorbildung  im  Lehrer-seminar.     {In  Pdda- 

goqiu7n,  1884.     V.  6,  pp.  534-556,  597-614  and  641-658.) 
Langermann,  J.,  Die  Vorbildutig  der  Lehrer  z«  Prdparanden-anstalten.     Biele- 
feld, 18S9.    30  pp.    {Savimlung pddagogischer  Vortrdge,  V.  2,  Part  4.) 
Loos,   Die  praktisch  pddagogische    Vorbildutig    in   Deutschland,   Zeitschrift  fiir 

Osterr.  Gym.     Vienna,  1893. 
Miiller,  Georg,   Zur  Entstehungsqeschichte  des  philologischen,  pddago^ischen  una 

katechetischeti  Seminars  an  der  Universitdt  Leipzig.     {In  Pddagogische 

Studien,  neue  Folge,  i8g6.  V.  17,  pp.  1-43.) 
Muth,  Das  methodische  Seminar.  Wien,  1880.  pp.  23. 
Nohl,   Clemens,   Pddagogik  fiir  hokeren   Lehranstalten.      Bd.    3,    Gera.,    1888. 

pp.  215. 
Y7i\i\%Q\\,Vix.Y.,  Gesckichte  des  gelehrten  Unterrichts.     2  Aufl.     2  Bde.     Leipzig, 

1897. 
Rein,  G.  W.,  Aus  dem  pdda^oqischen  Universitdts- Seminar  zu  Jena.     Langen- 
salza,  1888-96. 

Zur   Frage   der   Ausbildung   von  Erziehern  fiir   das  hohere  Lehramt, 

Zeilschrifif.  Philos.  u.  Pdd.     4  Heft.     Langensalza. 
Richter,  R.  L,  Zur  Frage  der  pddagogischen  Vorbildung fUr  das  hohere  Lehramt. 

{In  Neue  Jahrbiicher  fiir  Philolo^ie  und  Pddaqogik,  i8g6.     V.    154, 

pp.  209-224.) 
Sallwiirk,  Ernst  von,  Das  Staatsseminar  fiir  Pddagogik.     Gotha,  1890.     Pp.  40. 
Schiller,  Dr.  Hermann,  Pddagogische  Seminarien  fiir  das  hohere  Lehramt,  Ge- 

schichte  und  Erfahrung.     Leipzig,  1890.     Pp.  1 71. 
Schrader,  W.,  Erziehun^s  und  Unterrichtelehre.     Berlin,  1893. 
Stoy,  K.  v.,  Organisation  des  Lehrer  seminars.     Ein  Beitrag  zur  Methodologie 

der  Padagogik  angekniipft  an  einer  historische  Einleitung  und  Berichter- 

stattung    iiber   das   erste    Lebensjahr   des   Lehrerseminars   zu    Bielitz, 

Leipzig,  1869.     Pp.  104. 


CO  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [50 

Thaulow,  G.  F.,  Nothwendigkeit  und  Bedeuiunq  eines  pddagogischen  Seminars 

auf  Universiidten   und   Geschichte   meines   Seminars.     Berlin,   1845. 

II,  pp.  181. 
Thrandorf,  E.,  Die  pddagogische  Behandlun^  der   Geschichte  dei-  Pdda^ogik  im 

Lehrersetninars.     {In  Pddagogische  Siudien,  neue  Fol^e,  ISgj.     V.  18, 

pp.  I-15. 
"Vogt,  Theodor,  Die  Bedeutimg  der  pddagogischen   Universitdts-seminars.     {In 

Pdda^o^sche  Studien,  neue  Folge,  iSgj.     V.  14;  pp.  64-86.) 
Voss,  Die  pddagogische    Vorbildung    zum   hbheren    Lehramt   in    Preussen    una 

Sachsen.     Ein  Reisebericht.     Halle,  1889.     Pp.171. 
Waldeck,    Grundzil^e  der  wissenschaftlichen    Pdda^ogik    und  die  akademischen 

Seminare.     Leipzig,  1881.     Pp.  53. 
Willmann,  O,  Didaktik  ah  Bildungslehre,  18S2.     Bd.  i,  1882.      Pp.  420.     Bd. 

2, 1889.     Pp.  523-530. 
Witte,  Pddagogische  Professuren  an  Universiidten  und  Universiidts- Seminare , 

18SS. 
Zange,  Dr.  F.,  G}'mnasiaiseminare  und  die  pddagogische  Ausbildung  der  Kandi- 

daien  des  hoheren  Schulamts.     Halle,  1890.     Pp.  76. 
Arnold,  Matthew,  Higher  Schools  and  Universities  in  Germany.     London,  1882. 

Chapter  V.,  The  Prussian  Schoolmaster.     Pp.  62  ff. 
Barnard,    H.,    N'ational   Education    in   the    German   States.     E.   Steiger,    New 

York,  1872.      Pp.  902. 
Bohon,  Dr.  F.  E.,  The  Secondary  School  Systetn  of  Germany.     Chapter  II.  on 

Training  of  Teachers.     D.  Appleton  &  Co.     1900. 
Burnham,   Dr.    Wm.    H.,    The  Higher   Pedagogical   Seminaries    in    Germany. 

Pedagogical  Seminary,  1891.     Vol.  I,  p.  390. 
Eaton,  John,  editor,  Trainini;  of  Teachers  in  Germany.     Bureau  of  Education, 

Washington,  1878.     Circular  No.  i.     Pp.  36. 
James,  E.  J.,   The  Higher  Education  of  Teachers  at  the   University  of  Jena. 

New  Eng.  Jour,  of  Edu.     18:  356,  372. 
Russell,  Dr,  Jas.  E.,  German  Higher  Schools.     New  York,  1899.     See  Chapter 

XVIII.  on  Professional  Training  of  Teachers  for  Higher  Schools.     Also 

Education  R.     14:17-     (Je-) 
Seeley,  Dr.  Levi,  The  Comt?ion  School  System  of  Germany.     New  York,  1896. 

P.  138  ff. 
Annual  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  the   U.  S.     See  also  under  appropriate 

topics  of  Schmid  and  of  Rein's  Encyclopedias.     The  latter  contains  an 

excellent   bibliography  at  the  close  of  the  article  on  "  Padagogisches 

Universitats-Seminar . ' ' 


CHAPTER  II 

HISTORY  OF   NORMAL  SCHOOLS  IN  THE 
UNITED  STATES 

The  professional  training  of  teachers  in  America,  as  in 
Germany,  began  first  with  elementary  education.  It  arose 
out  of  the  necessity  for  academic  training  in  the  common 
school  branches. 

At  a  meeting  of  citizens  of  Plymouth  County,  Hanover, 
Mass.,  1838,  called  together  for  the  purpose  of  considering 
the  advisability  of  establishing  a  normal  school,  the  Rev. 
George  Putnam  said  :  "  He  once  had  kept  school,  and  with 
tolerable  acceptance,  he  believed,  to  his  employers,  but 
though  just  from  college,  he  found  himself  deficient  in  the 
very  first  steps  of  eletnejitary  knowledge.  He  had  studied 
all  the  mathematics  required  at  Cambridge,  but  he  did  not 
know  how  to  come  at  a  young  mind  so  as  to  successfully 
teach  enumeration.  He  had  studied  the  classics,  but  he 
could  not  teach  a  boy  how  to  construct  a  simple  English 
paragraph."  '  If  true  of  the  college  student,  how  much 
more  so  of  the  many  teachers  who  had  never  even  visited  an 
academy  or  a  high  school. 

For  the  first  twenty-five  or   thirty  years  of 

THE  FIRST      ^Yyq  natiou's  history,  the  energies  of  the  people 

YEARS  OF  A  . 

NATION        were   occupied  with   grave  questions   of  state, 

financial  policy,  foreign  and  domestic  relations, 

wars,  boundaries,  internal  dissensions,  and  the  many  read- 

^  As  quoted  by  Barnard  in  Am.  Jour.  Educ,  i  :  588. 
51]  5» 


e 2  TRAINING  OF  SECONDAR  Y  TEA  CHERS  [52 

justments  necessary  to  meet  the  new  forms  of  life  and  of 
government.  Besides,  it  was  not  until  the  prosperous  years 
following  the  War  of  1812  that  the  Union  began  to  be  con- 
sidered in  the  light  of  permanency  and  the  means  for  its 
perpetuity  became  a  matter  of  public  concern. 

With  increased  prosperity,  freedom  from  external  dis- 
turbances and  accumulated  faith  in  the  government,  the 
future  of  the  nation  began  to  receive  greater  attention.  In 
response  there  arose  the  movement  known  as  the  "  educa- 
tional revival"  covering  the  period  from  1820  to  1840,  dur- 
ing which  the  different  states  organized  and  greatly  extended 
their  school  systems  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  new  conditions 
of  society.  It  was  during  this  period  that  the  inefficiency 
of  elementary  education  began  to  attract  serious  attention, 
and  teachers'  seminaries  were  advocated  as  the  only  solution 
of  the  difficulty. 

It   is    probably   true,   as   stated    by   Gordy,' 

ORIGIN  OF      ^^^|.  ^j^g  \^^2i  of  normal  schools  for  this  coun- 

NORMAL  .     .        1  •  ,1  1 

SCHOOLS  ^^y  ^^^  ^"  origmal  conception  of  the  early 
writers  on  the  subject,  and  yet,  long  before  the 
idea  had  taken  definite  form  in  the  establishment  of  institu- 
tions, the  existing  system  of  Germany  had  been  carefully 
studied,  and  its  nature,  advantages  and  practical  workings 
had  been  heralded  through  the  country.  One  needs  only  to 
read  the  history  of  normal  schools  to  appreciate  the  debt 
we  owe  to  Prussia  for  the  ideal  as  well  as  for  the  form  of 
these  early  institutions.  A  single  illustration  will  suffice. 
"  The  Prussian  system,  better  than  any  other  with  which  we 
are  acquainted,  aims  at  unfolding  the  whole  nature  of  man, 
as  the  Creator  designed,  thus  bringing  out  all  the  talent  of 
the  country,  and  thereby  giving  to  each  child  the  chance  of 
making  the  most  of  himself.  •  *  *  *  To  secure  these 
glorious  results,  we  think  we  may  imitate  the  Prussians,  not 

'  Rise  and  Growth  of  the  Normal  School  Idea  in  the  United  States. 


53]  HISTORY  OF  NORMAL  SCHOOLS  53 

only  in  more  varied  and  extensive  studies,  bur  also  in  their 
Governmental  Organization." ' 

There  was  a  deficiency  in  the  school  system,  a  need  keenly 
felt;  Germany  had  successfully  met  somewhat  similar  con- 
ditions by  the  establishment  of  normal  schools ;  why  not 
try  the  experiment? 

Attention  had  been  attracted  to  the  elementary  schools ; 
and  it  was  there  that  the  greatest  deficiency  existed.  Nor- 
mal schools  were  created  in  response  to  this  need,  and  with 
the  expressed  object  of  "  qualifying  teachers  for  the  common 
schools." '^ 

At  the  town  meeting  at  Hanover,  Mass.,  1848,  already 
mentioned  above,  Rev.  Putnam  said :  "  It  (the  normal 
school)  would,  moreover,  raise  common  schools  to  be  the 
best  schools  in  the  community ;  and  when  they  had  become 
the  best  schools,  as  they  should  be,  then  the  money  now 
spent  in  private  schools  would  be  turned  into  the  public 
ones,  as  in  the  Latin  school  at  Boston,  and  higher  wages 
could  be  given  without  any  additional  burden  on  our  towns. 
*  *  *  *  The  normal  school,  while  it  opens  infinite  advan- 
tages to  the  poor,  will  lessen  their  burdens  and  elevate  them 
to  knowledge  and  influence."  ^ 

Following,  John  Quincy  Adams  said  :  "  We  see  monarchs 
expending  vast  sums,  establishing  normal  schools  through- 
out their  realms  and  sparing  no  pains  to  convey  knowledge 
and  efficiency  to  all  the  children  of  their  poorest  subjects. 
Shall  we  be  oiitdo7ie  by  kings  .^"  ■» 

At  the  same  meeting  Daniel  Webster  said  :  "  The  ultimate 
aim  was  to  elevate  and  improve  the  primary  schools  and  to 
secure  competent  instruction  to  every  child  which  should  be 

1  Petition  to  Mass.  Legislature,  1837,  in  behalf  of  Normal  Schools,  drafted  by 
Rev.  Chas.  Brooks.     Am.  Jour.  Educ,  17:  643. 

'  Statute  of  Mass.     Mass.  Common  School  Jour.,  i  :  35, 
»  Am.  Jour.  Educ,  I  :  588.  *■  Ibid.,  589. 


C4  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  ["54 

born,"  and  again,  "  This  plan  of  a  normal  school  in 
Plymouth  County  is  designed  to  elevate  our  common 
schools,  and  thus  to  carry  out  the  noble  ideas  of  our  pil- 
grim fathers." ' 

In  the  opening  address  of  the  normal  school  at  Barre, 
Mass.,  September  5,  1839,  Governor  Edward  Everett  said: 
"  This  institution  which  is  now  opened  in  this  pleasant  and 
prosperous  village  is  devoted  to  the  education  of  teachers  of 
the  common  schools  and  is  called  a  normal  school."  ^ 

Horace  Mann,  in  contrasting  the  work  of  the  New  York 
academies  and  Massachusetts  normal  schools,  said  the  first 
business  of  a  normal  school  consists  "  in  reviewing  and  thor- 
oughly and  critically  mastering  the  rudiments  or  elementary 
branches  of  knowledge."  3 

The  one  object  which  overshadowed  all  others  in  the  crea- 
tion of  normal  schools  was  that  they  should  be  the  fitting 
schools  for  elementary  teachers.  And  what  was  true  in 
Massachusetts  was  equally  true  in  the  other  states.  The  fol- 
lowing declaration  of  intentions  was  made  part  of  the  en- 
trance requirements  at  the  Albany  State  Normal  School, 
New  York :  "  We  the  subscribers  hereby  declare,  that  it  is 
our  intention  to  devote  ourselves  to  the  business  of  teaching 
district  schools,  and  that  our  sole  object  in  resorting  to  this 
normal  school  is  better  to  prepare  oursselves  for  that  im- 
portant duty.""* 

The  way  in  which  this  object  was  to   be  ac- 

THE  NATURE  OF  , .    ,        ,      .  ,         ,  .  ,  ,         •  , 

THE  WORK       complished    is    set    forth    quite  clearly   in   the 
address  of  Edward  Everett,  Governor  of  Massa- 
chusetts,  at    the    opening   of   the   State  Normal  School  at 

'  Am.  Jour.  Educ,  1  :  590.  '  Ibid.,  13  :  758. 

» Rise  and  Growth  of  the  Normal  School  Idea  in  the  United  States.  J.  P. 
Gordy,  p.  40. 

*  Am.  your.  Educ,  17:  708. 


55]  HISTORY  OF  NORMAL  SCHOOLS  55 

Barre,  1839.     He  said  in  part:   "Such  a  course  of  instruc- 
tion will  obviously  consist  of  the  following  parts  : 

"  I.  A  careful  review  of  the  branches  to  be  taught  in  our 
common  schools ;  it  being  of  course  the  first  requisite  of  a 
teacher  that  he  should  himself  know  well  that  which  he  is 
to  aid  others  in  learning.  *  *  *  *  The  first  object  of  in- 
struction in  a  normal  school  is,  as  far  as  possible,  in  the 
space  of  time  assigned  to  its  instructions,  to  go  over  the 
circle  of  branches  required  to  be  taught,  and  see  that  the 
future  teacher  is  thoroughly  and  minutely  versed  in  them. 

"  2.  The  second  part  of  instruction  in  a  normal  school  is 
the  art  of  teaching.  To  know  the  matter  to  be  taught  and 
to  know  it  thoroughly,  are  of  themselves,  though  essential, 
not  all  that  is  required.  There  is  a  peculiar  art  of  teach- 
ing.  *  *  ♦  * 

'*  3.  The  third  branch  of  instruction  to  be  imparted  in  an 
institution  concerns  the  important  subject  of  the  government 
of  the  school,  and  might  perhaps  more  justly  have  been 
named  the  first.   *   *  *  * 

"4.  In  the  last  place,  it  is  to  be  observed,  that  in  aid  of 
all  instruction  and  exercises  within  the  limits  of  the  normal 
school,  properly  so  called,  there  is  to  be  estabhshed  a  com- 
mon or  district  school,  as  a  school  of  practice,  in  which, 
under  the  direction  of  the  principal  in  the  normal  school, 
the  young  teacher  may  have  the  benefit  of  actual  exercise 
in  the  business  of  instruction."  ' 

Governor  Everett  calls  attention  to  the  three  branches  he 
considers  of  greatest  importance  for  these  schools:  reading,' 
writing  and  arithmetic.  In  his  outline  of  the  course  of  study 
we  have  the  essential  features  of  the  normal  school  as  it  has 
existed  from  that  day  to  this;  i.  A  thorough  grounding  in 
the   subject-matter   required  to  be  taught;   2.  The   science 

1  Orations  and  Speeches  oj  Edward  Everett,  2:  350-357;  Am.  Jour.  Edut., 
13.  765- 


^6  TRAIN/A'G  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  T^g 

and  art  of  teaching;  3.  School  management  and  discipline; 
4.  Practice  teaching. 

The  Educational  Committee  of  the  Massachusetts  Legis- 
lature in  1827  gave  expression  to  similar  views  when  repojt- 
ing  favorably  a  bill  for  normal  schools.  Among  other  things 
it  said :  "  The  attention  of  the  student  is  to  be  called  pri- 
marily to  the  course  of  reading  upon  the  subject  of  educa- 
tion ;  he  is  to  be  instructed  thoroughly  in  all  the  branches 
pertaining  to  his  profession,  particularly  in  all  that  portion 
of  solid  learning  calculated  to  fit  him  to  communicate  the 
knowledge  required  in  the  common  free  schools  of  the 
country.  A  peculiar  character  of  usefulness  will  be  stamped 
upon  the  institution  proposed  by  connecting  with  it  an  ex- 
perimental school,  consisting  entirely  of  young  children  pur- 
suing the  ordinary  routine  of  instruction."  ' 

The  normal  schools  of  this  country  began,  therefore,  with 
a  definite  object  in  view  {i.  e.,  to  prepare  teachers  for  the  com- 
mon district  schools),  and  according  to  a  well-matured  plan. 
For  nearly  a  century  teachers'  seminaries  had  been  in  the 
process  of  development  in  Germany,  and  these  furnished 
excellent  examples  which  required  only  to  be  adapted  to  the 
diflferent  social  conditions. 

List  of  early  normal  schools,  with  date  of  establishment: 


\ 


Lexington  (now  Framingham) 1839 

.        ,^      ,    Barre  (now  Westfield) i8^Q 

Massachusetts.  -|   „  . ,  ''^ 

Bridgewater 1 839 

Salem   1853 

Albany 1844 

New  York  •  "  \   Oswego 1863 

Brockport 1866 

Connecticut  . .       New  Britain 1 849 

Michigan Ypsilanti 1 850 

Rhode  Island.        Providence 1853 

,                          /  Iowa  City  (Normal  Dept.  in  State  Uni- 1  o 

I       versity) ' 

^  Amer,  your.  Educ,  16:  87. 


1 


57] 


HISTORY  Ot  NORMAL  SCHOOLS 


57 


New  Jersey 
Illinois  .... 


Pennsylvania. 


Minnesota 
Wisconsin 


Maine 


California 
Kansas  - . . 
Maryland  . 

Vermont   . 

Nebraska  . 
Indiana  . . 


W.  Virginia 


r  Trenton    1855 

I  Beverly 1856 

Bloomington  (Normal)   1857 

Millersville 1859 

Edinboro    1861 

Mansfield 1862 

Kutztown 1866 

Winona    i860 

Madison 1862 

Platteville 1866 

Augusta 1863 

Farmmgton  1 864 

San  Francisco  (now  San  Jos6) i86a 

Emporia     " 1865 

Baltimore 1865 

Randolph 1867 

Johnson 1867 

Castleton    1867 

Peru 1867 

Terre  Haute 1867 

Huntington  (Marshall  College)    1867 

Fairmont    1867 

West  Liberty 1867 


When  normal  schools  were  first  created  there 


ABSENCE  OF 
HIGH  SCHOOLS 


was  little  or  no  public  provision  made  for  sec- 
ondary education.  "Until  1837,  when  the 
Philadelphia  High  School  was  established,  there  was  no  in- 
stitution of  the  kind  in  the  United  States  outside  of  Massa- 
chusetts," '  and  it  might  have  been  added,  outside  of  Boston. 
Baltimore  organized  its  High  School  in  1839,  New  York  its 
Free  Academy  in  1849,  Cincinnati  a  High  School  in  1850, 
and  Chicago  in  1856.  There  were  a  few  of  the  old  grammar 
schools  and  a  number  of  incorporated  academies,  most  of 
which  received  public  funds,  but  they  had  been  established 
as  feeders  for  the  early  colleges,  and  were  devoted  princi- 
pally to  the  teaching  of  Latin,  Greek  and  mathematics,  sub- 
jects of  but  little  interest  to  the  people  at  large. 


*  Kiddle  &  Schem,  Cyclo.  of  Education,  p.  422. 


5  8  TRA FNING  OF  SECOXDAR  Y  TEA  CHERS  [58 

The  common  or  district  school  was  in  every 
sense    the    people's    school.     It    shaped    itself 

SCHOOL  . 

continually  to  their  needs  and  desires.  It  dealt 
with  the  subjects  considered  most  useful  in  the  ordinary 
duties  of  life.  It  was  then,  as  it  has  remained  ever  since, 
near  to  the  heart  of  the  people. 

The  natural  growth  of  the  country,  the  increasing  interest 
in  scientific  subjects,  and  the  partial  decline  of  Latin  and 
Greek,  the  greater  need  of  intelligent  citizenship,  and  the 
added  impetus  which  came  from  better  teaching  as  the  re- 
sult of  normal  schools,  caused  a  most  rapid  development  of 
the  common  school  system.  The  Kindergarten  in  one  di- 
rection and  the  High  School  in  the  other  were  but  outgrowths 
of  this  system. 

Boone  in  speaking  of  the  High  School  says, 

BEGINNING  OF     ..j.  ....  .  i.1         i  11  1       v 

Its  origin,  Its  aims,  its  methods,  all  mark  its 

HIGH  SCHOOLS         ..... 

kinship  with  institutions  below  rather  than 
above  it." '  But  the  High  Schools  did  not  come  into  exist- 
ence full-fledged  as  we  find  them  to-day.  It  is  true  some 
had  taken  the  place  of  the  old  grammar  schools  or  acad- 
emies and  had  expanded  by  adding  new  subjects  to  the 
curriculum,  but  the  greater  majority  were  the  result  of  an 
expansion  of  the  common  school  course  by  the  continued 
addition  of  new  subjects.  There  are  no  distinct  marks  of 
division  to  indicate  where  the  elementary  school  ends,  or 
where  the  high  school  begins.  Whether  the  addition  of  a 
few  new  subjects  to  the  common  school  course  makes  it  a  high 
school,  a  grammar  school,  or  only  a  district  graded  school, 
is  usually  determined  by  the  local  community. 

As    the    high    school    resulted   from    an    ex- 
EXTENsioNOF  pension   of  the   common    schools,  the  normal 

THE  NORMAL 

COURSE        schools,  having  been  charged  with  the  duty  of 
fitting  teachers   for  the  common   schools,  nat- 

'  Education  in  the  United  States,  p.  344. 


59]  HISTORY  OF  XOKMAL  SCHOOLS  59 

urally  enough  extended  their  curricula  to  meet  the  growing 
needs  of  the  teachers  they  trained.  Had  the  high  schools 
been  the  result  of  a  sudden  creation,  or  had  there  been  at 
the  time  other  teachers'  seminaries,  the  normal  schools 
might  have  remained  true  to  their  original  purpose  of  train- 
ing teachers  for  the  elementary  schools.  Under  the  circum- 
stances, however,  they  gradually  extended  their  field  to 
include  the  training  of  teachers  for  high  schools,  grammar 
schools  and  kindergartens,  some  even  endeavoring  to  train  , 
teachers  for  colleges.  And  as  the  high  schools  became 
more  and  more  developed,  the  difificulty  of  trying  to  cover 
the  whole  field  became  apparent.  The  work  of  the  normal 
school  was  stretched  to  the  utmost,  becoming  extended  in 
quantity  but  thin  in  quality. 

Another  point  worthy  of  notice  is  the  fact 
CHANGE  IN     ^j^g^.  ^^  ^j^g  beginning  of  normal  instruction  all 

HIGHER  EDU-  .7 

CATION.  schools  in  this  country,  whether  higher  or 
lower,  were,  in  the  true  sense  of  the  word, 
teaching  or  instructional  institutions,  that  is,  their  primary 
object  was  to  impart  rather  than  to  produce  knowledge. 
The  colleges  had  produced  their  great  teachers  like  Mark 
Hopkins,  but  the  student-teacher  or  investigator,  like 
Agassiz,  had  not  yet  enlered  the  field.  The  office  of  the 
college  professor,  like  that  of  the  teacher  of  the  lower 
schools,  was  primarily  one  of  instruction  and  not  one  of  in- 
vestigation. The  scientific  spirit  which  we  have  already 
mentioned  as  afifecting  the  work  in  Germany  had  not  yet 
taken  hold  of  the  people.  But  it  was  not  long  until  this 
movement  spread  throughout  the  country.  The  colleges 
became  universities ;  and  the  universities  have  become  insti- 
tutions of  investigation  and  research,  perhaps  even  more 
than  of  instruction.  In  this  change  of  method  the  high 
schools  of  the  country  have  been  correspondingly  affected, 
standing  as  they  do  upon  the  border  line  between  the  purely 


60  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [60 

instructional  work  of  the  lower  schools  and  the  specialization 
and  research  work  of  the  higher. 

As   long    as    education    remained    largely   a 
RESEARCH  AS    ^^^^^^  q{  instruction,  or  of  imparting  acquired 

A  FACTOR  o  i 

knowledge,  the  normal  schools  were  very  suc- 
cessful in  preparing  teachers  even  for  the  high  school ; 
because  by  carefully  massing  the  facts  and  systematizing 
the  work  of  instruction  according  to  well-known  pedagogical 
principles  the  student  was  enabled  to  acquire  more  knowl- 
edge in  less  time.  But  when  investigation  and  research 
became  important  factors  in  higher  education,  the  normal 
schools,  already  taxed  to  their  utmost,  could  not  successfully 
prepare  the  speciahsts  that  were  demanded  for  the  high 
schools.  To  prepare  specialists  required  time, — Agassiz 
might  keep  the  student  for  six  months  on  a  single  fish  before 
proceeding  to  supply  him  with  the  facts  already  accumu- 
lated ;  but  such  a  use  of  time  was  not  consistent  with  the 
work  and  purposes  of  the  normal  schools. 

While    the    normal    schools   have    met  with 

STIMULUS  OF  .  ,  ,   ,  ...  , 

NORMAL       considerable   opposition  from  one  source  and 

INSTRUCTION    anothcr,  they  have  been  of  great  service  to  the 

TO  HIGHER     teaching  profession,  and  have  continually  grown 

EDUCATION.        .       ,,         ,  ,  ^1  1 

in  the  favor  of  the  people. 
The  following  statement,  taken  from  the  report  of  the 
Educational  Committee  of  the  General  Assembly  of  Con- 
necticut, 1863,  expresses  almost  the  unanimous  verdict  of 
similar  committees  in  other  states:  "Testimony  has  been 
received  from  members  of  boards  of  education,  district  com- 
mittees, principals  of  large  pubHc  schools,  and  others  inter- 
ested in  educational  pursuits,  from  every  county  of  the  State 
— testimony  which  is  confirmed  by  a  careful  investigation  of 
all  seeming  opposition — that  as  a  class  the  graduates  and 
\  undergraduates  of  our  State  Normal  schools  are  more  sought 
for  as  teachers,  pass  better  examinations,  are  stricter  disci- 


6i]  HISTORY  OF  NORMAL  SCHOOLS  gj 

plinarians,  are  more  thorough  and  systematic  in  teaching, 
waste  less  time  in  educational  experiments,  are  more  ready 
to  improve  by  suggestions,  have  more  laudable  pride  in 
their  profession,  show  larger  results,  and  give  to  school 
committees,  parents  and  guardians  better  satisfaction  than 
teachers  from  any  other  sources," 

The  success  and  aggressiveness  of  teachers  trained  in  nor- 
mal schools  have  had  much  to  do  in  stimulating  universities 
to  establish  departments  of  pedagogy.  It  is  only  when  the 
normal  schools  with  limited  resources  have  overreached 
their  bounds  and  have  endeavored  to  prepare  teachers  for 
all  grades  of  school  work,  that  they  have  received  well- 
merited  criticism. 


CHAPTER  III 

HISTORY  OF  THE  EARLIEST  EFFORTS  FOR  THE 

PROFESSIONAL  TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  IN 

COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES 

As  shown  in  Chapter  II,  the  professional  training  of 
teachers  for  elementary  education  began  in  this  country- 
through  the  establishment  of  normal  schools  ;  and  according 
to  a  well-matured  and  thoroughly  efficient  plan.  Such,  how- 
ever, was  not  the  case  with  the  professional  training  of 
secondary  teachers.  Here  the  process  was  one  of  slow  devel- 
opment, indigenous  to  the  soil,  interrupted  and  modified  by 
the  changing  conditions  of  secondary  education. 

Whether  as  a  result  of  the  expanding  curricula  of  normal 
schools  and  the  formation  of  normal  departments  in  univer- 
sities, or,  later,  the  establishment  of  university  chairs  of 
pedagogy  and  departments  of  education,  the  professional 
preparation  of  secondary  teachers  has  never  been  very  clearly 
separated  from  that  of  elementary  teachers.  In  fact,  the 
same  pedagogical  treatment  has  usually  been  considered 
equally  valuable  for  either  field.  And  it  is  only  within  the 
last  few  years  that  any  serious  attempt  has  been  made  to 
differentiate  the  professional  training  of  elementary  and 
secondary  teachers.' 

As   normal   schools,  driven  by  what  seemed 

NORMAL  DE-  '  -^ 

PARTMENTs  IN  to  bc  a  nccessity,  enlarged  their  curricula  to 

THEUNivERsi-  make  provision  for  teachers  in  higher  educa- 

^'^^  tion,  so  the  colleges  with  a  somewhat  similar 

'  See  Dr.  Harris'  article,  "  The  Future  of  the  Normal  School,"  Educational 
Review,  Jan.,  1899,  and  the  present  School  Law  regulating  Normal  Instruction 
in  Massachusetts,  California  and  Connecticut. 

62  [62 


63]  IN  COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES  63 

spirit  endeavored  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  people  by  extead- 
ing  their  courses  to  include  the  preparation  of  teachers  for 
elementary  schools.  Especially  was  this  true  of  the  state 
universities  of  the  West,  created  at  a  time  when  normal 
schools  were  making  headway  in  the  East  and  before  their 
establishment  in  the  West.  It  was  through  the  develop- 
ment of  these  normal  departments  in  the  universities  that 
the  first  chairs  of  pedagogy  came  into  existence.  Another 
independent  movement  will  be  considered  later. 

Through  the  labors  of  Henry  Barnard,  while 
school  commissioner  of  Rhode  Island  (1841;- 

UNIVERSITY  ^         ^■' 

49),  the  people  became  thoroughly  aroused  on 
educational  affairs,  and  in  response  to  the  efTorts  of  his  suc- 
cessor, Elisha   R.  Potter,    Brown    University   established    a 
Normal  department  in  1850,  under  the  charge  of  Samuel  S. 
•Greene,'  superintendent  of  the  Providence  schools.     He  re- 
tained his  position  as  superintendent  while  at  the  same  time 
performing  the  duties  of  Professor  of  Didactics  in  the  Uni- 
versity.    This  double  relation  is  of  interest  in   connection 
with  the  present  arrangement  at  Brown  University,  whereby 
the  Professor  of    Pedagogy  being  also  principal  of  one  of 
the  Providence  high  schools. 
PURPOSE  AND        ^"  defining  the  purpose  of  the  new  depart- 
DEVEroPMENT  mcut,  thc  anuual  catalogue  of   1851-52,  p.  43, 
OF  THE        says:  "  This  department  is  opened  for  all  those 

DEPARTMENT  -u  •    \^    .        y_  i  •  \     ^  \  a 

wrio  wish  to  become  professional  teachers.  A 
course  of  lectures,  commencing  on  the  5th  of  November, 
will  be  given  on  the  habits  of  mind  necessary  to  eminent 
success  in  teaching;  the  relation  of  the  teacher  to  the  pupil; 
the  principles  which  should  guide  in  the  organization  of  a 

'The  following  brief  statement  taken  from  the  Historical  Catalogue  (1764- 
1894)  of  Brown  University,  under  the  heading  of  "  Professors,"  is  of  interest: 
"Samuel  Stillman  Greene,  LL.  D.,  Didactics,  1851-54;  Mathematics  and  Civil 
Engineering,  1855-64;  Natural  Philosophy  and  Astronomy,  1864-83;  died,  1883." 


64  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [64 

school ;  the  arrangement  and  adaptation  of  studies  to  the 
capacity  of  the  learner;  the  influences  to  be  employed  in 
controlling  the  passions,  forming  the  habits  and  elevating 
the  tastes  of  the  young ;  and  on  the  elements  of  the  art  of 
teaching,  or  the  best  methods  of  imparting  instruction  in 
reading,  grammar,  geography,  history,  mathematics,  lan- 
guage, and  the  various  other  branches  taught  in  our  higher 
seminaries.  All  these  lectures  are  accompanied  with  prac- 
tical exercises,  in  which  each  member  is  to  participate. 
For  the  benefit  of  teachers  generally,  a  class  has  already 
been  formed,  consisting  of  persons  not  connected  with  the 
University,  This  class  numbers  at  present  fifty  members. 
Lectures  are  given  at  the  Lecture  Room  of  the  High  School, 
on  Benefit  street,  twice  a  week,  on  the  various  topics  em- 
braced in  a  course  of  elementary  teaching," 

In  carrying  forward  his  work.  Prof,  Greene  established  a 
second  class  of  teachers  and  students,  not  members  of  the 
University,  which  in  1852  grew  into  a  private  Normal  school, 
with  D,  P.  Colburn,  of  the  Bridgewater  Normal,  and  Arthur 
Summer,  of  the  Lancaster  Normal,  as  assistant  teachers. 
In  1854  this  school,  with  D.  P.  Colburn  as  principal,  was 
made  a  State  Normal  school,  and  shortly  afterward  was  re- 
moved to  Bristol, 

The  purpose  for  which  the  normal  department  of  the 
University  had  been  created  having  been  met  by  the  es- 
tablishment of  a  state  normal  school,  the  University  gave 
up  its  normal  department  and  suspended  its  pedagogical 
work.  The  annual  catalogue  of  1854-55,  p.  38,  refers  to  the 
matter  as  follows:  "In  consequence  of  the  establishment  in 
Providence  of  the  Rhode  Island  Normal  school,  instructions 
in  this  department  of  the  University  are  for  the  present  sus- 
pended. Students  wishing  to  pursue  a  course  in  didactics 
may  do  it  in  connection  with  the  abovementioned  school," 

No  further  pedagogical  work  was  offered  in  the  University 


^5]  ^^  COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES  gj 

until  1893-94,  when  Walter  Ballou  Jacobs,  A.  M.,  principal 
of  one  of  the  Providence  high  schools,  was  made  instructor 
in  pedagogy.  He  gave,  during  the  third  term  of  that  year, 
a  three-hour  course  in  "  The  history,  theory  and  practice  of 
organized  education,"  elective  for  juniors,  seniors  and  grad- 
uates. Prof.  Jacobs  has  since  been  made  Associate  Professor 
of  Pedagogics,  but  still  continues  as  principal  of  one  of  the 
Providence  high  schools.  He  has  been  granted  one  or  two 
extra  instructors  in  the  department  of  pedagogy,  who,  like 
himself,  are  also  connected  with  the  teaching  staff  of  the  city 
schools.  The  department  of  pedagogics  is  coordinate  with 
the  other  departments  of  the  University,  and  while  the  work 
is  elective,  it  may  count  toward   graduation. 

We  purpose  giving  in  another  chapter  the  later  develop- 
ment of  this  department,  but  offer  in  this  connection  a  state- 
ment showing  the  present  arrangement  for  practice  teaching, 
which  was  established  in  the  fall  of  1897.  I^  's  as  follows: 
"  From  members  of  the  senior  class  who  have  completed  the 
course  in  Pedagogy  offered  during  the  senior  year,  the 
school  committee  of  the  city  of  Providence  make  appoint- 
ments to  the  position  of  student-teacher  in  the  high  school. 
To  those  thus  appointed  the  high  school  serves  as  a  school 
of  observation  and  practice  in  connection  with  the  graduate 
course  in  Pedagogy.  In  return  for  the  services  rendered, 
the  city  gives  such  a  student-teacher  half  the  pay  of  a  regu- 
lar teacher.  The  time  required  each  day  is  somewhat  more 
than  half  the  usual  period  of  service.  An  unusual  oppor- 
tunity is  thus  offered  student-teachers  to  gain  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  theory  of  pedagogy,  and  at  the  same  time 
practical  experience  in  the  art  of  teaching."  ' 

NORMAL  DE-  ^^  ^^^^^  ^^  ^^49.  the  Iowa  legislature  made 

PARTMENT  IOWA  provisiou  for  three  state  normal  schools  to  be 
UNIVERSITY      located    in   different  parts  of   the  state.     The 
*  Catalogue,  1899-1900,  p.  58. 


66  TKAINrNG  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [66 

Act  carried  with  it  an  appropriation  of  $500  per  annum 
for  each  school,  to  be  apportioned  out  of  the  University 
Fund,  provided  that  in  each  case  the  people  of  the  district 
contribute  an  equal  amount  for  the  erection  of  buildings. 
In  accordance  with  this  provision  two  schools  were  opened, 
one  at  Andrews  and  the  other  at  Oskaloosa,  but  failing  to 
receive  the  expected  aid  from  the  University  Fund  they  soon 
discontinued.  The  Act  appropriating  money  for  normal 
schools  was  repealed  in  1855,  and  the  State  University,  in 
response  to  a  general  demand,  opened  a  normal  department. 

For  the  first  year  the  normal  department  was  in  charge  of 
Mr.  J.  Van  Valkenburg,  and  registered  in  all  about  seventy 
students.  Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  it  was  made  a  de- 
partment of  the  State  University,  it  was  at  first  conducted 
by  separate  teachers  and  the  work  was  of  the  most  ele- 
mentary character. 

The  first  circular  announcement  of  the  Normal  Depart- 
ment, Sept.,  1855,  says,  under  condition  of  entrance:  "The 
applicant  must  be  twelve  years  of  age  if  female,  and  fourteen 
years  of  age  if  male,  and  must  be  supplied  with  slate,  pencil, 
blank-book,  Webster's  dictionary,  and  Mitchell's  or  Mc- 
Nally's  geography  and  atlas.  .  .  .  The  course  of  study  in 
this  school  will  begin  with  orthography,  reading,  penman- 
ship, English  grammar,  mental  and  written  arithmetic,  geog- 
raphy, and  physiology. 

"  The  attention  of  pupils  is  directed,  first,  to  a  thorough 
review  of  elementary  studies ;  second,  to  those  branches  of 
knowledge  which  may  be  considered  as  an  expansion  of  the 
above-named  elementary  studies,  or  collateral  to  them ; 
third,  to  the  art  of  teaching  and  its  modes." 

In  June,  1858,  all  instruction  was  suspended  for  want  of 
funds  to  meet  current  expenses.  Instruction  in  the  normal 
course  was  resumed  November,  1858,  and  in  the  collegiate 
courses  September,  i860.     Upon  resuming  the  work  in  the 


Cy]  IN  COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES  Qy 

normal  department,  the  requirements  were  raised  and  the 
age  limit  placed  at  fifteen  for  females  and  seventeen  for 
males.  A  model  school  was  attached  to  the  department, 
and  continued  in  operation  until  1866,  when  it  was  abolished 
by  the  trustees.  Daring  its  continuance  the  normal  stu- 
dents were  required  to  teach  in  it  from  two  to  four  weeks,  in 
their  senior  year. 

The  abolition  of  the  model  school,  while  in  accord  with  the 
University  authorities  who  were  looking  toward  the  higher  de- 
velopment of  the  professional  training  of  teachers,  was  disap- 
pointing to  many  of  the  best  school  men  of  the  State.  The 
State  Superintendent,  D.  Franklin  Wells,  in  his  report  for 
1868,  refers  to  the  matter  as  follows:  "  The  Normal  Depart- 
ment of  the  University  was  opened  in  the  year  1855,  since 
which  time  upwards  of  1 000  persons  have  received  therein  a 
partial  course  of  instruction.  A  limited  number  have  grad- 
uated, some  of  whom  are  occupying  the  first  places  in  the 
common  and  high  schools  of  the  State,  and  exerting  an  in- 
fluence which  is  felt  in  constantly  widening  circles.  Others 
have  been  called  to  responsible  positions  in  other  states.  It 
is  feared,  however,  that  the  department,  though  under  the 
instruction  of  an  able  professor,  has  lost  much  of  its  efifi- 
ciency  as  an  agency  for  the  practical  training  of  teachers  by 
the  recent  suspension  and  abolishment  by  the  Board  of 
Trustees  of  the  model  and  training  school  formerly  con- 
nected with  it." 

Beginning  with  1862,  the  students  in  the  normal  depart- 
ment were  gradually  combined  with  the  classes  in  the  Uni- 
versity and  in  the  preparatory  school  for  their  academic 
instruction. 

The  following  is  the  course  of  study  for  the  normal 
department  as  offered  in  1866: 


68  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [68 

"Junior  Year, 
Fall  Term.  Winter  Term. 

Higher  Arithmetic — Robinson.  Algebra— Robinson. 

History  of  United  States.  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching— Page. 

Physiology.  Reading  and  Spelling. 

Senior  Year. 
Fall  Term.  Winter  Term. 

Rhetoric,  Composition.  Mental  Philosophy— Wayland. 

Algebra,  Geometry — Robinson.  Ancient  History — Wilson. 

Natural  Philosophy.  Inorganic  Chemistry — Stockhardt. 

Spring  Term. 

Moral  Philosophy — Wayland. 
Modern  History — Wilson. 
School  Systems  of  Iowa. 
Vocal  music  throughout  the  course.     Students  will  practice  teaching  in  the 
Model  Training  School  during  the  entire  course." 

From  this  time  on  the  course  of  instruction 
mEAL^ND     w^s  gradually  raised,  and  in   1873  the  normal 
GROWTH       department  was  merged  into  the  academic,  the 
OF  THE        reasons  assigned  being  that,  "Didactics,  in  the 
DEPARTMENT    j^j^j^^j.  ^^^^^^  jg  ^  ij^eral  study.     It  includes  the 
philosophy  of  mind,  the  laws  of  mental  development,  and  all 
those  branches  of  study  and  methods  of  instruction  that  are 
employed    in    general    education.     Besides,    the    course    of 
study  and  methods  of  teaching  in  the  academic  department 
are  such  as  would  be  selected  if  that  department  were  organ- 
ized and  carried  forward  for  the  sole  purpose  of  educating 
teachers   for   advanced   schools.     Such   teachers    need    pri- 
marily   accurate    scholarship    united    with    liberal    culture. 
The  instruction  given  in  language,  science,  mathematics  and 
literature,  meets  this  demand."     Again,  as  to  aim  it  is  said, 
"  The  design  of  this  department  hereafter  will  be  to  prepare 
students  for  advanced  schools.     Hence  only  those  academic 
seniors  who  intend  to  become  teachers,  and  special  students 


69]  ^N  COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES  g^ 

who   may  be   qualified   to   be   classed   with    them,   will    be 
allowed  to  pursue  normal  studies."  ' 

In  discussing  the  status  of  the  normal  department  in  1877, 
President  C.  W.  Slagle  said :  "  The  Normal  Department  is 
included  in  this  category  {i.  e.^  Collegiate  Departments — 
D.  W.  A.  L. ) .  The  question  of  its  status  was  raised  in  1 86 1 ,  in 
the  Board  of  Trustees  upon  the  proposition  that  a  distinction 
should  be  made  between  the  sense  in  which  it  was  called  a 
department  and  that  in  which  the  other  chairs  were  so- 
called.  After  mature  consideration  the  board  decided  that 
no  such  distinction  should  be  made,  and  it  has  ever  since, 
whether  called  a  department  or  chair  of  didactics,  been 
simply  upon  the  same  footing  with  the  other  professorships 
in  the  collegiate  department.  For  several  years  a  separate 
normal  course  was  maintained  and  classes  were  graduated 
on  completing  it,  but  when  the  university  from  the  advance- 
ment of  its  requirements  for  admission  ceased  to  give  in- 
struction in  the  ordinary  common  school  branches  and  so 
shut  out  those  preparing  for  primary  teaching,  the  board 
determined  to  offer  preparation  only  for  the  higher  depart- 
ments of  educational  work,  to  which  a  large  portion  of  the 
collegiate  alumni  are  called  as  principals  of  high  schools, 
superintendents,  etc.  They  have,  therefore,  placed  the 
studies  relating  to  this  branch  as  electives  in  the  senior  year 
of  the  collegiate  courses,  so  that  any  graduate  who  chooses 
may  receive  instruction  in  this  direction.  They  have  further 
provided  that  any  pupil  in  the  university,  though  not  intend- 
ing to  graduate,  may  enter  these  classes.  Since  the  adop- 
tion of  this  plan  there  has  been  gratifying  evidence  of  its 
success,  and  it  is  believed  that  in  this  respect  the  university 
is  rendering  important  service  in  the  work  of  popular  educa- 
tion. It  is  further  gratifying  to  observe  that  the  thoughts  of 
the   most   enlightened   educators   of   the   time    are    tending 

^  Catalogue  of  State  Univ.  of  Iowa,  i872-'73,  p.  46. 


JO  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [^q 

toward  the  adoption  of  a  similar  plan  for  other  colleges. 
The  University  of  Edinburgh  has  recently  established  a  pro- 
fessorship of  didactics.  That  distinguished  educator,  Sec- 
retary Northrop,  of  Connecticut,  in  a  recent  report  comment- 
ing on  this  fact  uses  this  language :  '  It  is  a  reproach  to  us 
that  no  similar  professorship  exists  in  any  American  college 
except  in  the  State  University  of  Iowa.' ' 

The  growth  of  the  department  is  also  made  clearer  by  an 
outline  of  the  teaching  staff,  with  the  corresponding  titles. 
Following  Mr.  Valkenburg,  from  1856  to  1866,  Prof.  D. 
Franklin  Wells  was  in  charge  of  the  work,  first  as  principal 
of  the  Normal  Department,  and  later  (1862)  under  the  title 
of  Professor  of  the  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching  in  the 
University.  He  resigned  in  1866  to  become  State  Superin- 
tendent of  Public  Instruction.  The  following  year  Stephen 
N.  Fellows,  D.  D.,  was  made  Professor  of  Didactics  in  the 
University,  his  title  being  changed  in  1873  to  that  of  Pro- 
fessor of  Didactics  and  Political  and  Moral  Science,  and  in 
1878  to  that  of  Professor  of  Mental  and  Moral  Science  and 
Didactics.  In  1888  G.  T.  W.  Patrick,  A.  M.,  was  called  to 
the  latter  chair,  but  transferred  the  following  year  to  that  of 
Professor  of  Philosophy.  The  next  two  years  the  Depart- 
ment of  Didactics  was  without  a  head,  and  the  instruction  in 
pedagogy  was  given  by  the  professors  of  Philosophy  and 
Political  Science.  In  1890  Frank  B.  Cooper,  A.  B.,  was 
called  to  the  chair,  with  the  title  of  Professor  of  Pedagogy, 
and  the  following  year  Jos.  J.  McConnell  was  made  Professor 
of  Pedagogy.  Professor  McConnell  resigned  his  position 
in  1 901  to  accept  the  city  superintendency  of  schools, 
Cedar  Rapids,  Iowa,  and  Fred.  E.  Bolton,  Ph.D.  was  ap- 
pointed Professor  of  the  Science  and  Artfof  Education. 

Thus  we  see  from  this  brief  survey  that  the  first  inde- 
pendent collegiate  department  of  pedagogy  in  the  United 

^  Pres.  C.  VV.  Slagle,  in  Report  of  the  State  University  of  Iowa,  1877,  p.  33. 


7i]  IN  COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES  71 

States  was  the  natural  outgrowth  of  an  elementary  normal 
school  connected  with  the  University.  The  object  at  first 
was  to  educate  common  school  teachers.  The  instruction 
was  largely  academic  and  of  the  most  elementary  nature. 
This  changed  gradually  with  the  conditions  of  education  in 
the  State,  until  the  need  for  which  the  department  was  cre- 
ated became  supplied  through  other  sources  and  the  Univer- 
sity outgrew  its  preparatory  school ;  then  a  department  for 
the  professional  training  of  secondary  teachers  came  as  a 
natural  consequence. 

Since  1864  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Didactics  has  been 
ofifered  to  graduates  in  the  regular  courses  who  have  com- 
pleted the  course  in  pedagogy  and  are  able  to  give  proof  of 
two  years'  successful  teaching  after  graduation ;  and  since 
1873  all  distinctly  normal  features  of  the  work  have  been 
discontinued  and  the  department  has  been  a  purely  profes- 
sional one,  without  practice  teaching. 

The  development  of  pedagogical  instruction 

THE  COLLEGE      .  .  .  .   ..         . 

OF  NORMAL  IN-  ^^  ^"^  Univcrsity  of  Missouri,  while  slower  and 
sTRucTioN,  UNI-  Icss  systcmatic,  has  been  in  the  main  similar  to 
vERsiTY  OF     ^-1^3^  jj^  tj^g  University  of  Iowa. 

MISSOURI  -  0^,1  T,yr-  -i-ii  J 

In  1867  the  Missouri  legislature  passed  an 
act  establishing  in  the  University  of  Missouri  a  chair  of 
theory  and  practice  of  teaching.  The  department  was 
opened  in  September,  1868,  under  the  title  of  the  College  of 
Normal  Instruction,  and  has  been  the  source  of  much  sub- 
sequent legislation  and  misunderstanding.  While  not  so 
stated  in  the  original  statute,  it  seems  to  have  been  the  in- 
tention of  the  legislature  to  make  the  theory  and  practice 
of  teaching  a  department  of  the  university  co-ordinate  in 
rank  with  law  and  medicine.  This  is  indicated  not  only  in 
subsequent  acts,  but  also  in  the  organization  of  the  depart- 
ment itself. 


72  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [72 

In  speaking  of  the  college  of  normal  instruction,  the  re- 
port of  the  University  of  Missouri  for  1869  and  '70  says: 
"The  Constitution  of  the  State  of  Missouri  prescribes  that 
there  shall  be  established  and  maintained  in  the  State  Uni- 
versity a  department  of  instruction  in  teaching. 

The  Normal  College,  like  a  Law  College,  is  a  professional 
school.  Its  distinct  design  is  to  prepare  teachers  for  their 
peculiar  vocation.  The  elementary  branches  will  be  thor- 
oughly taught  and  reviewed  in  the  preparatory  department, 
while  in  the  normal  school  proper,  prominence  will  be  given 
to  the  principles  and  methods,  the  theory  and  practice  of 
teaching!' 

Mr.  E.  L.  Ripley,  A.  M.,  was  made  principal  of  the  col- 
lege of  normal  instruction  and  Professor  of  the  theory  and 
practice  of  teaching.  A  model  school  was  attached  to  the 
department  and  the  following  course  offered : 

"  Freshman  Year. 
Reading,  Orthography,  Penmanship,  Arithmetic,  Geography,  English  Grammar, 
History  of  the  United  States,  Drawing,  Mapping. 

Sophomore  Year. 
Algebra,  Analytical  Grammar,  Physical  Geography,  Natural  Philosophy,  Phjrsi- 
ology,  General  History,  Latin,  Elocution,  Rhetoric,  Book-keeping,  Art  of  Teach- 
ing, Science  of  Government. 

yunior  Year. 
Geometry,  Trigonometry,  Botany,  Zoology,  Astronomy,  General  History,  Latin 
and  Greek  for  Gentlemen,  Latin  and  German  or  French  for  Ladies,  Lectures  on 
Theory  and  Practice. 

Senior  Year. 
Latin,    Greek    and   German,    Surveying,    Chemistry,    Agricultural   Chemistry, 
Geology,  Mental  Philosophy,  Moral  Philosophy,  Philosophy  of  Education.     Three 
months'  practice." 

The  course  as  given  above  does  not  dififer  much  from  the 
usual  advanced  normal  school  course  of  the  period,  and  a 
fair  proportion  of  the  graduates  entered  the  profession  of 
teaching.  Of  the  twenty-one  graduates  for  the  years 
1869  and  1870  inclusive,  fourteen  became  teachers.     In  the 


73]  IN  COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES  73 

latter  year  there  were  eighty-three  normal  students  and  two 
hundred  and  sixteen  pupils  in  the  model  school. 

In  1876  the  Normal  course  was  somewhat  enlarged  and 
the  title  of  Prof,  Ripley  changed  to  that  of  Professor  of 
Pedagogics  and  Dean  of  the  Normal  Faculty.  Graduates 
were  given  the  degree  of  Principal,  Bachelor,  or  Master  of 
Pedagogics  (Pe.  P.,  Pe.  B.,  Pe.  M.).  Three  years  later  the 
Normal  courses  were  rearranged,  giving  more  attention  to 
the  elementary  branches,  and  Miss  Grace  C.  Bibb  was  made 
Professor  of  Pedagogics  and  Dean  of  the  Normal  Faculty. 
Another  change  occurred  in  1884-85,  when  David  R.  Mc- 
Anally  became  Professor  of  English  and  Dean  of  the  Normal 
Faculty.^  The  elementary  normal  degree  (Pe.  P.)  was  con- 
ferred upon  students  completing  the  two  years*  course, 
arranged  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  school  law  of  the 
State  for  teachers'  certificates.  The  degree  of  Master  and 
Bachelor  of  Pedagogics  (Pe.  M.  and  Pe,  B.)  were  conferred 
upon  graduates  of  the  University  who  had  taken,  in  addition 
to  their  collegiate  work,  two  semesters  of  normal  instruction. 

In  1891  J.  P,  Blanton,  A.  M.,  was  made  professor  of 
theory  and  practice  of  teaching  and  mental  and  moral 
philosophy.  The  following  year  the  legislature  repealed 
the  law  requiring  preparatory  courses  to  be  offered  in  the 
University,  and  the  first  year's  work  of  the  elementary 
normal  course  was  abolished,  the  work  of  the  normal  col- 
lege being  merged  into  that  of  the  University,  The  require- 
ments for  entrance  to  the  normal  course  were  made  the 
same  as  for  the  Freshman  class  of  the  University,  The 
academic  instruction  was  given  by  the  different  university 
professors  and  the  pedagogical  instruction  by  the  professor 
of  the  theory  and  practice  of  teaching.  Students  desiring 
to  secure  the  certificate  of  the  elementary  normal  course, 
entitling  them  to  teach  in  the  State  for  a  period  of  two  years, 

1  He  was  succeeded  two  years  later  in  the  same  chair  by  Edward  A.  Allen. 


74  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [74 

were  required  to  take  thirteen  hours  per  week  of  academic 
work  from  the  Freshman  subjects  of  any  of  the  academic 
courses,  besides  two  hours  per  week  of  drawing  and  three 
hours  per  week  of  pedagogics,  all  to  continue  throughout 
the  year.  The  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Pedagogy  (B.  P.)  was 
retained  for  graduates  of  the  University  who  had  taken  the 
required  three  hours  of  pedagogy  during  the  junior  and 
senior  years,  one-half  of  which  (six  hours)  might  count 
toward  the  academic  degree.  No  practice  teaching  was 
offered,  and  the  professional  work  consisted  of  the  study  of 
educational  theories,  educational  psychology,  and  the  organ- 
ization and  management  of  schools. 

This  is  substantially  the  condition  to-day.  The  Normal 
department,  with  its  separate  teachers,  model  school  and 
elementary  instruction,  has  given  place  to  a  department  of 
pedagogy,  with  a  single  professor  and  distinctly  professional 
work.  The  development  of  the  department  has  been  more 
interesting  than  this  brief  outline  indicates,  and  it  now  seems 
that  it  will  soon  become  in  fact,  what  it  has  long  been  in 
theory,  a  professional  school  of  education  co-ordinate  with 
that  of  law  and  of  medicine. 

WISCONSIN  "^^^  preparation   of  teachers  was   clearly  in 

UNIVERSITY,    m.ind   in   the   foundation   of    the  University   of 
NORMAL  DE-    Wiscouslu,  as  showu  in  the  charter  which  pro- 
vides for  four  departments  as  follows :   the  De- 
partment of  Literature,  Science  and  the  Arts ;   the  Depart- 
ment of  Law  ;   the  Department  of  Medicine,  and  the  Depart- 
ment of  the  Theory  and  Practice  of  Elementary  Instruction. 
a-TTT.««,r  AXTrv        The  first  effort  to  realize  the  above  depart- 

jixl£OK.Y   AND 

PRACTICE  OF    ment  of  Theory   and   Practice   of    Elementary 
ELEMENTARY    Instructlou  sccms  to  have  been  made  in  1856 
INSTRUCTION    ^^^^  Daniel  Read,  LL.  D.,  in  addition  to  his 
collegiate   appointment,  was  made  professor  of  normal  in- 
struction in  the  department  of  "  The  Theory  and  Practice  of 


75]  IN  COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES  75 

Elementary  Instruction."'  As  the  school  funds  were  not 
sufficient  to  properly  organize  the  department,  the  Regents 
in  their  announcement  say:  "Professional  instruction  will, 
therefore,  be  rendered  in  the  art  of  teaching  during  the  sum- 
mer term  of  each  year,  by  Prof.  Read,  and  the  young  men 
of  the  state  who  may  connect  themselves  with  the  teachers' 
class  will  be  admitted  to  the  instruction  of  the  other  depart- 
ments of  the  University,  as  they  may  select."  ' 

This  resulted  in  several  brief  courses  on  education  during 
the  spring  or  summer  terms  of  1856,  '57  and  '58,  beginning 
the  last  week  in  April  and  continuing  until  commencement, 
about  the  fourth  Wednesday  of  July.  The  members  of  the 
teachers'  class,  in  addition  to  professional  instruction,  had 
the  privilege  of  carrying  forward  such  other  branches  of 
study  from  the  university  courses  as  they  might  select. 

The  above  arrangement  proved  unsatisfactory,  and  no 
further  effort  was  made  until  i8*58,  when  Prof.  Charles  A. 
Allen,3  who  had  been  employed  by  the  Board  of  Regents  of 
Normal  Schools,  was  appointed  Professor  of  the  Theory  and 
Practice  of  Normal  Instruction  in  the  University.  Prof. 
Allen  continued  at  the  head  of  the  new  normal  department, 
which  now  extended  its  courses  throughout  the  year,  from 
1863  to  1865,  when,  on  his  resignation,  Joseph  C.  Pickard, 
A.  M.,  Professor  of  Modern  Languages  and  Literature,  was 
made  head  of  the  normal  department.  He  remained  in  this 
capacity  for  one  year,  after  which  the  normal  department 
was  dropped. 

In  speaking  of  the  department,  the  Board  of  Regents,  in 
their  annual  report  for  1865,  say:  "This  department  was 
opened  March  6,  1863,  since  which  time  it  has  been  in  suc- 

^  His  collegiate  appointment  was :    Professor    of    Mental   Philosophy,  Logic, 
Rhetoric  and  English  Literature. 

*  Regents'  Report  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin  for  18^6,  p.  10. 
'  Afterwards  Principal  of  the  San  Jos6  (California)  Normal  School. 


76  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [76 

cessful  operation.  The  primary  aim  of  the  department  is 
to  fit  teachers  for  their  work ;  but  any  who  desire  to  pursue 
the  higher  English  branches  will  be  admitted  to  the  classes. 
Candidates  for  admission  to  the  Normal  course  must  pass 
a  satisfactory  examination  in  the  outlines  of  geography, 
elements  of  English  grammar,  and  arithmetic  to  proportion." 

Under  the  heading  "  Normal  Department"  the  same  re- 
port says:  "The  Faculty  are  of  the  opinion  that  the  Normal 
department  has  made  the  University  a  more  useful  institution 
during  the  past  three  years  than  otherwise  it  could  have 
been.  It  is  not,  however,  to  be  disguised  that  among  former 
students  of  the  University,  and  among  leading  ones  now  in 
the  institution,  there  has  been  a  strong  feeling  of  opposition 
to  the  department,  mainly  on  the  ground  of  its  bringing 
females  into  the  University.  There  has  been  an  apprehen- 
sion that  the  standard  of  culture  would  be  lowered  in  conse- 
quence. No  reason  whatever  has  as  yet  existed  for  this 
apprehension.  There  has  been  no  such  mingling  of  classes 
in  the  higher  and  more  recondite  subjects  as  to  render  this 
effect  possible  even  if  it  would  be  the  result,  and,  in  point  of 
fact,  there  has  not  been  a  period  in  the  history  of  the  Uni- 
versity when  some  few  students  have  carried  their  studies  to 
a  higher  or  wider  range  than  in  recent  classes.  The  resig- 
nation of  Professor  Allen,  who  has  conducted  this  department 
since  its  existence  with  signal  energy  and  success,  raises  new 
questions  for  the  decision  of  the  Board.  As  to  whether 
there  shall  be  a  professor  to  fill  the  place  of  Professor  Allen, 
or  whether  there  shall  be  the  union  of  the  Normal  and  Pre- 
paratory departments  by  the  election  of  a  principal  to  have 
charge  of  both  departments,  or  whether  the  department 
shall  be  dropped  altogether."  ' 

The  above  report  is  interesting  in  this  connection,  showing 
not   only  the   interest  of  the  University  authorities   in   the 

'  Regents'  Report  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  1865,  p.  22. 


•^-j-^  IN  COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES  77 

normal  department,  but  also  the  systematic  opposition  that 
it  encountered.  The  reference  to  the  opposition  that  had 
been  created  against  the  department,  based  upon  the  fear 
that  the  admitting  of  females  to  the  University  would  lower 
its  standard  of  culture,  is  rather  amusing  in  the  light  of  pres- 
ent conditions. 

The  opposition  prevailed  and  a  year  later  the  department 
was  discontinued.  From  the  first  the  academic  instruction 
had  been  conducted  in  the  preparatory  or  collegiate  depart- 
ments of  the  University,  and  not  under  separate  normal 
teachers,  as  in  Iowa  and  Missouri.  This  may  have  been  a 
cause  of  the  opposition;  besides,  in  1866  the  Board  of  Re- 
gents of  Normal  Schools  opened  the  first  state  normal 
school  of  Wisconsin  at  Platteville,  and  two  years  later  the 
one  at  Whitewater,  thus  removing  the  necessity  for  a  depart- 
ment of  elementary  normal  instruction  in  the  University. 

No  further  provision  was  made  for  pedagogical  instruction 
in  the  University  until  1885,  when  a  University  Department 
of  the  Science  and  Art  of  Teaching  was  created,  and  Prof.  J. 
W.  Stearns,  LL.  D.,  placed  in  charge.  Three  years  later 
the  title  of  the  department  was  changed  to  that  of  Philosophy, 
and  Dr.  Stearns  made  Professor  of  Philosophy  and  Pedagogy. 

Since  the  beginning  of  the  department,  in  1885,  the  work 
has  been  planned  primarily  with  the  view  of  the  professional 
training  of  secondary  teachers.  The  courses  of  pedagogy 
offered  in  1885  were  as  follows: 

"  Fall  Term. 

1.  Educational  Praxis,  including  School  Economy,  Organization,  Management 
and  Methods  of  Teaching. 

2.  The  Theory  of  Teaching,  including  the  Psychological  Basis  of  Methods  and 
Courses  of  Study. 

Spring  Term. 

3.  The  History  of  Educational  Theories  and  Practices  in  Europe  and  America. 

4.  Superintendence  and  Comparative  Study  of  Educational  Systems  of  the 
United  States." 


78  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [78 

In  1897  the  department  was  enlarged  and  the  title  changed 
to  the  "School  of  Education,"  Dr.  J,  W.  Stearns  becoming 
director  of  the  School  of  Education  and  Professor  of  Phil- 
osophy and  Pedagogy,  and  M.  V.  O'Shea,  B.  L.,  Professdr 
of  the  Science  and  Art  of  Education. 

The  development  of  the  department  has  not  been,  as  in 
Iowa  and  Missouri,  a  continuous  growth,  but,  on  the  con- 
trary, commencing  as  a  Normal  class  in  the  University,  then 
a  Normal  department,  it  was  discontinued  with  the  beginning 
of  State  Normal  schools,  and,  after  a  rather  long  interval,  re- 
created into  a  Pedagogical  department  for  the  professional 
training  of  secondary  teachers. 

THE  UNIVERSITY      '^^^^  Univcrslty  of  Kansas  grew  out   of  the 
OF  KANSAS,     University  of  Lawrence,  a  Presbyterian  school 
NORMAL  DE-    which  was  established  in  1859,  and  which  con- 
PARTMENT      ^^incd  at  the  time  of  the  transfer  a  normal  de- 
partment.    Such  a  department  was  also  clearly  foreshadowed 
by  an  Act  of  the  Legislature  approved  March,  1864,  charter- 
ing the   present  State   University.     Section   10  of  the  Act 
says:   "The  university  shall  consist  of  six  departments:    i. 
The   Department   of    Science,  Literature    and  the  Arts;   2. 
The  Department  of  Law;    3.  The  Department  of  Medicine; 
4.  The  Department  of  Theory  and   Practice  of  Elementary 
Instruction;    5.  The    Department    of    Agriculture;    6.  The 
Normal  Department."  ' 

The  Normal  Department  of  the  University  was  first 
opened  in  1876  with  an  enrollment  of  thirty-five  students. 
Complete  courses  were  ofTered  and  full  instructions  given  in 
the  common  school  branches  throughout  the  year.  It  seems 
to  have  been  the  purpose  of  the  Regents  to  establish  a  sep- 
arate normal  department  with  its  own  teachers ;  but  as  the 
law  had  made  no  appropriation  for  the  support  of  this  de- 

^  University  of  Kansas  Catalogue,  i8jl-''j2,  p.  43. 


79j  IN  COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES  79 

partment  it  was  necessary  to  modify  the  original  plan.  For 
this  reason,  in  the  following  year,  instead  of  a  separate 
normal  department,  "  two  courses  were  established,  an  ele- 
mentary and  a  higher  normal  course.  For  admission  to  the 
latter,  the  applicant  must  be  prepared  in  reading,  spelling, 
elements  of  English  grammar,  penmanship,  arithmetic, 
algebra  through  quadratic  equations,  descriptive  and  phys- 
ical geography,  elements  of  natural  philosophy,  history  and 
constitution  of  the  United  States,  and  industrial  drawing."' 

The  expressed  object  of  the  higher  normal  course  was  to 
give  preparation  for  instructors  in  preparatory  high  schools 
and  teachers'  institutes.'  All  the  academic  studies  of  the 
normal  department  were  pursued  in  the  regular  preparatory 
and  collegiate  classes. 

Between  the  years  1877  and  1885  inclusive,  there  were 
seventy-two  students  graduated  from  the  normal  depart- 
ment, ten  of  whom  were  of  the  class  of  1885.  The  depart- 
ment, however,  had  met  with  determined  opposition  from 
the  normal  schools  (public  and  private)  of  the  state,3  and 
from  the  university  faculty  itself.  On  this  account,  by 
action  of  the  Board  of  Regents,  the  normal  department  was 
discontinued  in  1885,  and  the  Dean,  P.  J.  Williams,  D.  D  , 
was  made  the  Professor  of  Didactics  in  the  university. 

The  first  course  arranged  for  the  new  department  of 
Didactics  (1885-6)  is  given  as  follows: 

"  Studies :  The  same  as  those  of  the  Freshman  and  Sophomore  classes  in  any 
of  the  four  full  courses." 

"  Junior  Class. 
First  Term — Didactics.  Second  Term — Didactics. 

^  University  of  Kansas  Catalogue,  1877-8,  p.  34. 
*  University  of  Kansas  Catalogue,  i88i-'82,  p.  39. 

'  The  6rst  State  Normal  School  of  Kansas  was  established  at  Emporia  in 
1864-5. 


8o  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [go 

Senior  Class. 
First  Term — History  of  Sciences,  half  term. 

Systems  of  Education,  half  term. 

Mental  and  Moral  Science.     One  of  the  optional  studies. 
Second  Term — Practice  teaching. 

Political  Economy.     One  of  the  optionals." 

"Students  who  take  this  course  are  entitled  to  the  degree 
B.  A.  or  B.  S.,  as  in  other  courses.  The  practice  teaching 
must  cover  a  year's  successful  work  in  the  school-room, 
either  before  or  after  graduation.  This,  in  addition  to  the 
course,  will  entitle  the  graduates  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor 
of  Didactics  (B.  D.)."  ' 

For  the  next  two  years  but  two  courses  were  offered  in 
didactics,  methods  of  teaching  and  the  history  of  educa- 
tion, the  first  for  five  hours  per  week  throughout  the  year, 
the  second  for  five  hours  per  week  during  the  second 
semester.     No  practice  teaching  was  offered. 

The  former  opposition  still  continued,  and  in  1888  the 
department  of  didactics  was  closed.  It  was  again  reorgan- 
ized in  1893  under  the  title  of  the  department  of  pedagogy, 
with  A.  S.  Olin,  A.  B.,  as  instructor.  The  department  has 
since  been  changed  (1899)  to  read  "Department  of  Educa- 
tion," and  Prof.  Olin's  title  to  that  of  "  Professor  of  Edu- 
cation." 

As  far  back  as  1839  the  trustees  of  the  Uni- 

DEPARTMENT  OF  . 

PEDAGOGY,  UNI-  vcrsity  of  Indiana  began  to  consider  the  advisa- 
vERsiTY  OF     bility    of    establishing    a    department    for    the 
INDIANA       special  preparation  of  common  school  teachers. 
But  it  was  not,  however,  until   1852  that  the   agitation  be- 
came crystallized,  and  a  normal  school  was  opened  in  con- 
nection with  the  preparatory  department  of  the  University. 
The  expressed  object  of  the  normal  department  was  "  to 
fit   teachers    for    the    common    schools  of   the    state."     Its 

^  University  of  Kansas  Catalogue,  1884-85,  p.  40. 


8i]  IN  COLLEGES  AND   UNIVERSITIES  gl 

organization  was  simple,  including  the  creation  of  a  single 
"  Professorship  of  Didactics,"  to  which  Daniel  Read,  Pro- 
fessor of  Latin  and  Greek,  was  appointed  professor,  and  the 
establishment  of  a  "  Model  School,"  of  which  Mr.  John  C, 
Smith  was  made  first  principal. 

The  course  at  first  consisted  of  a  series  of  lectures  on 
teaching  and  school  management,  and  a  somewhat  careful 
review  of  the  common  school  branches  which  was  thought 
to  be  the  principal  requisite  in  the  preparation  of  an  ele- 
mentary teacher.  "  Intending  teachers  occasionally  took 
secondary  work  in  the  preparatory  classes,  but  the  thought 
was  not  common  that  professional  qualifications  meant 
something  more  than  better  scholastic  attainments  in  the 
subjects  to  be  taugnt,  and  the  theory  of  teaching  was  little 
studied."  ' 

For  a  number  of  years  the  normal  department  struggled 
along  under  many  disappointments  and  interruptions.  It 
was  discontinued  in  1858  and  remained  closed  until  1864, 
when  it  was  again  established  under  the  charge  of  D.  E. 
Hunter,  who  had  formerly  been  principal  of  the  model 
school,  and  who  was  at  the  time  of  appointment  city  super- 
intendent of  the  public  schools  of  Bloomington,  Indiana,  the 
seat  of  the  University.  The  school  was  now  opened  to  both 
men  and  women,  but  it  remained  in  operation  only  a  few 
terms  and  was  again  discontinued. 

In  1868  the  normal  department  was  once  more  reorgan- 
ized, in  response  to  a  general  demand  from  the  teachers  of 
the  State,  and  ex-State  Superintendent  George  W.  Hoss, 
who  was  at  the  time  Professor  of  English  in  the  University, 
was  in  addition  appointed  "  Professor  of  Didactics "  in  the 
normal  department."*    In  discussing  this  period  of  the  school, 

'  Boone,  History  of  Education  in  Indiana. 

^"  Professors  of  English  Literature  and  the  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching: 
Rev.  Henry  B.  Hibben,  A.  M.,  from  i860  to  1861;  Hon.  Geo.  W.  Hoss,  LL.  D., 


82  TRAINING  OF  SECONDAK\    TEACHERS  V%2 

Dr.  R.  G.  Boone,  to  whom  I  am  indebted  for  much  of  the 
above,  says  "Professor  Hoss  was  just  fresh  from  his  ofificial 
term  as  State  Superintendent,  and  knew  well  the  needs  of 
the  State  in  regard  to  better  teaching.  .  .  .  But  the  work 
was  greatly  disappointing;  it  was  made  but  an  incident  in 
the  constitution  of  the  college,  occurring  in  the  spring  term 
only,  and  without  any  well-defined  plan."  ' 

Five  years  later,  1873,  the  normal  department  was  again 
closed,  and,  as  the  Indiana  State  Normal  School  had  been 
established  at  Terre  Haute  three  years  previous,  there  was 
now  no  immediate  necessity  for  the  continuance  of  an  ele- 
mentary normal  department  in  connection  with  the  State 
University,  and  its  reorganization  was  not  again  attempted. 

Nothing  further  of  interest  regarding  the  professional 
training  of  teachers  occurred  in  the  University  until  1886, 
when,  in  response  to  a  different  demand  and  with  an  entirely 
different  ideal,  the  university  authorities  created  an  inde- 
pendent collegiate  "Department  of  Pedagogics."  Superin- 
tendent Richard  G.  Boone,  A.  M.,  then  of  Frankfort,  Indiana, 
was  appointed  "Professor  of  Pedagogics"  and  Acting  Pro- 
fessor of  Philosophy,  and  given  the  task  of  organizing  the 
new  department.  He  outlined  for  the  first  year  ten  courses, 
as  follows:  I.  Educational  Psychology,  first  term,  two  hours 
per  week;  II.  School  Economics,  first  term,  three  hours  per 
week;  III.  History  of  Education,  second  term,  daily ;  IV. 
Teaching  as  an  Art,  second  term,  three  hours  per  week;  V. 
School  Supervision,  second  term,  two  hours  per  week;  VI. 
Philosophy  of  Education,  third  term,  daily;  VII.  Labora- 
tory Studies;  i.  Illiteracy  as  a  civil  and  political  factor;  2. 
Compulsory    Education;    3.  Industrial    Education;   4.  The 

from  1868  to  1871;  Rev.  John  L.  Gay,  A.  M.,  from  1871  to  1872;  Rev.  George 
Parrott,  A.  M.,  from  1872  to  1873;   Hon.  George  W.  Hoss,  LL.  D.,  from  1873 

to ."     Ajimuil  Report  of  Ind.  Univ.,  1873-74. 

*  Boone,  History  of  Education  in  Indiana. 


83 J  IN  COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES  83 

Kindergarten;  5.  Professional  Training,  first  term,  two 
hours  per  week;  second  term,  three  hours  per  week;  VIII. 
Foreign  School  Systems;  IX.  American  State  School  Sys- 
tems; X.  School  Legislation.  The  catalogue  does  not  state 
the  amount  of  time  given  to  the  last  three  subjects. 

The   new  idea   in   regard  to  the  professional 

PROFESSIONAL  °  ^ 

TRAINING  FOR   training   of   teachers,  or   rather  the  conviction 

HIGH  SCHOOL    wliich  vvas  becoming  prevalent  that  even  col- 

TEACHERs      \q^q    graduatcs    in    order    to  become    efficient 

teachers  need  professional   training,  is  shown  so  clearly  in 

the   statements   regarding   the   nature  and  purposes  of  the 

new  department  that  it  has  been  thought  best  to  quote  in  full. 

"These  courses  in  Pedagogics  have  been  recently  added  to  the 
curriculum  of  the  Indiana  University.  Their  character  may,  there- 
fore, be  set  forth  somewhat  in  detail.  The  attention  of  advanced 
college  Students,  of  teachers  of  experience,  who  wish  to  make  a 
formal,  systematic  study  of  their  profession,  and  of  such  others  as, 
in  the  judgment  of  the  faculty,  have  sufficient  preparation  and  ma- 
turity for  it,  is  called  to  the  work  of  this  department. 

It  is  designed,  first  and  chiefly,  with  the  present  social  conditions, 
to  meet  the  demand  for  well-prepared  teachers  for  the  higher  posi- 
tions in  the  public  schools  and  colleges.  The  best  positions  in  Indi- 
ana and  elsewhere  are  held  by  men  whose  first  qualification  is  a 
sufficient  scholarship.  Their  learning  secures  them  recognition. 
But  these  also  need  professional  training.  To  provide  adequately 
for  this  special  culture  is  the  primary  aim  of  the  present  department. 

Its  aim,  secondly,  is  to  dignify  and  rationalize  the  professional 
aspect  of  teaching.  To  this  end  is  offered  a  course  (I)  in  applied 
psychology,  with  the  purpose  of  setting  forth  the  fundamental  rela- 
tions of  a  knowledge  of  mind  to  the  work  of  teaching.  The  text  in 
use  is  supplemented  by  lectures  and  discussions  on  the  general  and 
acquired  functions  of  mind,  mental  processes,  and  the  nature  and 
conditions  of  mental  growth  and  development.  Never  before  did 
teachers,  school  officers  and  others  interested  in  education  manifest 
a    more    earnest   desire    to   understand    the   philosophy  of  mental 


84  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARE    TEACHERS  [84 

culture ;  and  the  beginnings  "'of  that  philosophy  are  found  in  the 
nature  of  mind. 

Courses  II-VI  are  arranged  to  cover  fully  the  three  phases  of  peda- 
gogical study — the  practical,  the  historical,  and  the  theoretical. 
Many  students  who  do  not  make  a  specialty  of  Pedagogics,  and  who 
have  no  intention  of  entering  the  profession  of  teaching,  will  find  an 
excellent  culture  study  in  courses  III  and  IV. 

The  department  of  Pedagogics  is  not  in  any  sense  a  normal  school, 
and  while  in  entire  sympathy  with  such  professional  agencies,  it  is 
not  designed  to  trench  upon  any  ground  now  so  occupied.  Its  pro- 
fessors have  no  pedagogical  dogma  to  enforce,  but  hope  for  the 
bettering  of  Indiana  schools,  and  the  elevation  of  the  profession."  ^ 

Here,  in  the  above,  as  just  prior  in  the  universities  of 
Iowa,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Johns  Hopkins,  and  others,  we 
find  what  seem  to  be  the  true  beginnings  of  departments 
created  for  the  primary  object  of  the  professional  training  of 
secondary  teachers ;  as,  formerly,  the  normal  schools  had 
been  established  for  the  immediate  purpose  of  the  profes- 
sional training  of  elementary  teachers. 

Commenting  a  few  years  later  on  the  nature  of  the  depart- 
ment as  now  constituted,  Dr.  Boone  says :  "  The  work  from 
the  beginning  was  conceived  and  directed  from  the  point  of 
view  of  the  university — not  the  normal  school.  Its  original 
constitution  provided  a  course  covering  two  years,  since  ex- 
tended to  three,  and  open  to  the  members  of  the  higher  col- 
lege classes.  It  includes  professional  work  only.  A  liberal 
academic  training  is  presupposed ;  not  less  than  Freshman 
and  preferably  Sophomore  standing.  The  work  is  entirely 
elective,  being  freely  opened  to  students  of  other  depart- 
ments. .   .  . 

It  employs  neither  practice  schools  nor  model  lessons, 
and  is  not  designed  to  present  an  established  or  exclusive 
art  of  teaching.     It  is  content  to  have  studied  in  a  liberal 

^  Calalogue  of  Indiana  University,  1886-S7,  pp.  48  and  49. 


85]  IN  COLLEG  ES  AND   UNI  VERSl  TIES  g  5 

way  the  nature  and  conditions  of  education  as  the  ground 
upon  which  to  erect,  or  (with  a  different  figure)  as  furnish- 
ing the  doctrine  out  of  which  may  be  evolved  an  approved 
art.  .   .   . 

The  department  is  one  of  eighteen  co-ordinate  depart- 
ments in  the  University,  each  covering  four  years,  and  each 
leading  to  the  degree  of  B.  A.  Every  graduate  from  the 
department  must  have  had  one  year  of  college  English,  one 
year  of  mathematics,  one  year  of  laboratory  science,  and 
two  years  of  some  language  other  than  English,  and  of  col- 
lege grade ;  the  full  course  in  pedagogics ;  and  sufficient 
work  chosen  from  other,  but  in  general,  related  departments 
to  make  up  the  minimum  of  studies  required  for  graduation 
(thirty-six  terms)."' 

The  department  as  established  in  1886  remained  without 
any  particular  change,  other  than  slight  modifications  of  the 
courses  offered  from  year  to  year,  until  1894,  when  Dr. 
Boone,  professor  of  pedagogics,  accepted  a  call  to  the  presi- 
dency of  the  Michigan  State  Normal  School  at  Ypsilanti. 
The  department  of  pedagogics  in  the  Indiana  University  was 
then  made  a  sub-department  to  that  of  philosophy,  and 
W.  L.  Bryan,  Ph.D.,  professor  of  philosophy,  was  given  the 
new  title  of  Professor  of  Philosophy  and  Pedagogy,  and 
placed  in  charge  of  both  departments.  Since  then  several 
new  instructors  have  been  added,  but  the  department  still 
(1902)  remains  a  sub-department  of  philosophy. 

KENTUCKY.  ^^  virtuc  of  an  act  of  the  Legislature,  ap- 

STATE  COLLEGE,   provcd  March  13,  1878,  the  State  Agricultural 

NORMAL         and  Mechanical  College  of  Kentucky  was  sep- 

DBPARTMENT     ^^atcd    from    the    Kentucky    University,  with 

which  it  had  been  connected  since  its  establishment  in  1865, 

and  made  an  independent  college  of  the  State.     An  act  of 

*  Boone,  History  of  Education  in  Indiana,  p.  382  ff. 


86  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [86 

the  Legislature,  approved  April,  1880,  created  in  connection 
with  this  college  a  "Normal  Department,  or  course  of  in- 
struction for  irregular  periods,  designed  more  particularly, 
but  not  exclusively,  to  qualify  teachers  for  common  and 
other  schools." ' 

The  normal  department  was  established  the  following 
year,  and  Maurice  Kirby,  A.  M.,  Professor  of  Moral  and 
Political  Philosophy,  placed  in  charge,  under  the  title  of 
"  Professor  of  Moral  and  Political  Philosophy  and  Principal 
of  the  Normal  Department."  From  the  first  the  school  has 
been  looked  upon  as  a  co-ordinate  department  of  the  college. 
The  academic  instruction  is  given  in  the  other  departments 
of  the  college,  or  of  the  academy,  which  is  also  a  part  of  the 
institution.  The  professional  instruction  is  given  by  the 
principal  of  the  normal  school,  who  is  likewise  a  member 
of  the  college  faculty. 

At  first  the  course  was  three  years  in  length  and  covered 
the  subjects  usually  presented  in  normal  schools  of  that 
period. 

The  requirements  for  admission,  as  given  in  the  catalogue 
for  1883,  are  stated  as  follows:  "Applicants  for  admission 
into  the  Normal  School  must  be  prepared  to  stand  an  exam- 
ination in  English  Grammar,  Arithmetic  and  Geography. 
Normal  students  who  receive  free  tuition  will  be  required, 
on  entering,  to  sign  an  obligation  to  teach  within  the  limits 
of  Kentucky  for  a  period  as  long  as  that  during  which  they 
receive  free  tuition." 

With  no  provision  for  practice  teaching,  the  aim  of  the 
school  seems  to  be  to  have  all  instruction  of  the  college  pre- 
sented in  such  a  way  as  "to  illustrate  to  the  pupil-teachers 
in  the  various  classes  the  latest  and  best  methods  of  teaching 
these  subjects."  ^ 

'^Kentucky  State  School  Law,  1 880. 
*  Catalogue  of  i8g4-g^,  p.  46. 


87]  IN  COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES  g/ 

There  are  at  present  four  courses  offered:  i.  A  four 
years'  course  leading  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Pedagogy; 
2.  A  two  years'  course  leading  to  a  state  diploma;  and  3 
and  4.  Two  elementary  courses  preparatory  for  county  and 
state  certificates. 

The  purpose  of  the  department  may  best  be  seen  from 
the  statement  of  Ruric  N.  Roark,  Ph.  D.,  principal  of  the 
normal  school:  "Although  organized  as  a  Department  of 
the  College  co-ordinate  with  the  other  departments,  yet  the 
Department  of  Pedagogy  is  more  properly  a  school  in  itself, 
made  so  by  the  necessities  of  the  Public  School  system  of 
the  State.  Therefore,  in  addition  to  offering  full  work  in 
Pedagogy  (Educational  Psychology  and  its  applications 
in  School  Economy  and  educational  methods),  this  Depart- 
ment also  provides  academic  instruction  for  teachers  who 
desire  to  fit  themselves  for  higher  grades  of  work.  In  ad- 
ministering the  Department,  the  real  needs  and  limitations 
of  the  average  Public  School  teacher  are  kept  constantly 
in  view,  and  the  elevation  of  the  common  schools  of  the 
State  is  the  basic  principle  of  the  work." ' 

Several  minor  changes  have  occurred  in  the  work  since 
the  organization  of  the  department,  but  it  still  remains,  prop- 
erly speaking,  only  a  normal  school  and  not  a  collegiate 
department  of  pedagogy  for  the  professional  training  of 
secondary  teachers. 

There  are  two  state  normal  schools  in  Kentucky,  one  at 
Frankfort  for  colored  students  and  one  at  Louisville  for 
whites.  There  are  also  a  number  of  colleges  in  the  State 
that  have  lately  established  normal  departments  ;  among  the 
latter  is  the  Kentucky  University,  a  denominational  institu- 
tion controlled  by  the  Disciples  of  Christ,  which  established 
a  "Normal  College "  in  September,  1899,  quite  similar  to 
that  in  the  Kentucky  State  College  above  described.  It  was 
*  Catalogue  for  i8gq-igoo,  p.  30. 


88  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [88 

the  Kentucky  University  with  which  the  State  College  was 
for  a  number  of  years  affiliated  as  indicated  above. 

Among  the  first  institutions  of  higher  educa- 
UNIVERSITY        .  .        ,        „         ,  ,  .   .  ,  , 

OF  NORTH      *^°"  ^"  ^"^   South  to   make  provision  for  the 

CAROLINA,  special  preparation  of  teachers  was  that  of  the 
NORMAL  University  of  North  Carolina.  The  constitution 
of  the  State,  adopted  in  1868,  contains  the  fol- 
lowing clause,  Article  IX,  Section  14:  "As  soon  as  prac- 
ticable after  the  adoption  of  this  constitution,  the  General 
Assembly  shall  establish  and  maintain,  in  connection  with 
the  University,  a  department  of  Agriculture,  of  Mechanics, 
of  Mining,  and  of  Normal  Instruction!'  The  condition 
under  which  this  constitution  was  adopted  and  the  stirring 
times  which  followed  in  state  administration,'  caused  but 
little  attention  to  be  given  to  the  fulfilment  of  the  above 
section. 

It  was  in  accordance  with  a  provision  of  the  amended 
constitution,  entitled  "  An  act  to  establish  Normal  schools," 
ratified  March  9,  1877,  that  the  State  Board  of  Education 
was  authorized  to  establish  such  a  school  in  connection  with 
the  State  University.  An  appropriation  of  $2,000  annually 
for  Normal  instruction  was  made  by  the  State  Legislature. 
"The  State  Board,  with  the  concurrence  of  the  Trustees  and 
Faculty  of  the  University,  concluded  to  have  a  Summer 
Normal  School  of  six  weeks'  duration,  beginning  the  third 
of  July,  1877,  the  instruction  to  be  by  experts  trained  in 
Normal  methods.  No  charge  was  made  for  tuition.  Pecun- 
iary aid  was  given  out  of  an  annual  fund  of  $500  (one  year, 

^  The  constitution  was  adopted  during  the  reconstruction  period  after  the 
Civil  War,  when  the  State  administration  was  composed  largely  of  Northern  officers 
and  recent  settlers  in  sympathy  with  the  national  administration.  Hence  the 
legislative  acts  of  this  body  had  but  little  binding  force  upon  the  State  administra- 
tions that  followed  soon  after. — G.  W.  A.  L. 


89]  I^  COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITLES  89 

$800),  donated  by  Rev.  Dr.  Sears,  agent  of  the  Peabody 
Fund,  to  those  unable  to  meet  their  necessary  expenses."  ' 

The   above   arrangement  of    summer   normal    schools  or 
teachers*    institutes    was    continued    each    year    during    the 
summer    vacations   of    the    University   until    1885,  when  a 
normal  department,  continuing    throughout   the   year,  was^ 
established  instead. 

These  summer  normal  schools  at  the  University  were 
largely  attended  by  the  teachers  of  the  State,  reaching  one 
year  402,  and  averaging  310.  The  instruction  was  mainly 
academic,  devoted  almost  entirely  to  a  study  of  the  element- 
ary branches.  Prominent  teachers  were  called,  both  from 
within  and  from  without  the  State,  to  give  instruction.  Much 
good  was  accomplished  in  arousing  the  teachers  of  the  State 
and  in  creating  a  desire  for  graded  schools,  but  the  term  was 
too  short  for  ef^cienl  instruction,  and  the  lack  of  prepara- 
tion on  the  part  of  the  changing  student  body  made  the  work 
somewhat  discouraging.  To  the  President,  K.  P.  Battle, 
LL.  D.,  is  due  in  large  part  both  the  origin  and  the  success 
of  the  movement  for  normal  instruction, 
BEGINNING  OF  ^^^°^  ^°  1 8/7  no  uormal  schools  had  been 
STATE  NORMAL  cstabHshed  by  the  State,  but  along  with  the 
SCHOOLS  establishment  of  a  summer  normal  school  for 
whites  at  the  state  university,  the  state  board  of  education 
opened  the  first  state  normal  school  for  colored  youths  at 
Fayetteville.  This  was  followed  shortly  afterward  (1881) 
by  the  creation  of  four  additional  summer  normal  schools 
for  whites  and  a  like  number  of  state  normal  schools  for 
colored  students.  The  former,  however,  had  no  permanent 
location  and  were  rather  of  the  nature  of  county  teachers' 
institutes  of  five  or  six  weeks'  duration. 

In    1885-86    the    university  authorities    discontinued  the 

>  Caialogue  0/1877-78,  p.  59. 


rjo  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [90 

summer  normals  and  established  a  normal  department  in- 
stead, appointing  Nelson  B.  Henry,  professor  of  the  science 
and  art  of  teaching.  The  academic  instruction  was  given 
in  connection  with  the  other  departments  of  the  university. 

The  aim  of  the  department  is  set  forth  as  follows:  "The 
Normal  Department,  designed  to  train  teachers  for  the 
schools  of  the  State,  has  been  established  in  accordance 
with  the  Constitution  thereof,  and  by  recent  Act  of  the  Leg- 
islature, is  free  of  tuition  to  young  men  preparing  themselves 
for  the  purpose  of  teaching,  on  condition  that  they  sign  a 
pledge  to  teach  at  least  one  year  after  leaving  the  University. 
On  passing  approved  examinations  upon  the  studies  enu- 
merated in  the  Normal  Department,  the  student  will  receive 
a  certificate  attesting  this  fact,  and  setting  forth  the.  degree 
of  proficiency  attained."' 

The  course  as  outlined  consisted  of  two  years'  work  as 
follows : 

"  First  Year. 

First  Term. — English  (2),  Algebra  (3),  Physiology  (3),  History  of  North 
Carolina  (2),  Commercial  Arithmetic  (i),  Reviews  and  Methods  of  Teaching  (5). 

Second  Term. — English  (2),  Algebra  (3),  Zoology  and  Botany  (3),  History  of 
the  United  States  (2),  Book-keeping  (i),  School  Economy  (4). 

Second  Year 

First  Term. — English  (i),  Algebra  (4),  Physical  Geography  (l),  Elocution 
(2_),  Chemistry  (3),  or  Physics  or  Latin  (4),  Graded  Schools  (3),  Seminary  (i). 

Secojtd  Term. — English  (i),  Physical  Geography  (i),  Geometry  (4),  Chemis- 
try (3),  or  Physics  or  Latin  (4),  Methods  of  Culture — Educational  Psychology 
(2),  History  of  Education  (3),  Seminary  (i)."* 

The  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Pedagogics  (Pe.  B.)  was 
granted  in  connection  with  the  Bachelor's  degree  from  the 
university  to  students  completing  the  course  in  the  science 
and  art  of  teaching. 

*  Catalogue  of  1886-87,  ?•  44-  '  Ibid.,  p.  45. 


9i]  IN  COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES  gi 

OT^CT.,-  ^^  ^„^      In    1^85,   in   lieu   of   a   lareer  appropriation 

CLOSING  OF  THE  -^ '  -a  r  r        \r 

NORMAL  from  the  State  to  the  University,  the  $2,000 
DEPARTMENT  normal  instruction  fund  was  diverted  to  four 
summer  normal  schools  in  different  parts  of  the  State,  $500 
to  each.  Two  years  later  the  Agricultural  and  Mechanical 
College  was  separated  from  the  state  university,  and  the 
$7,500  annually  received  from  the  Land  Grant  Fund  was 
thus  lost  to  the  University.  This  curtailment  of  funds  made 
it  necessary  to  diminish  the  teaching  force,  which  was  done 
by  dropping  three  departments,  z.  ^.,the  department  of  Min- 
ing, of  Biology,  and  of  Normal  Instruction. 

With  the  exception  of  a  few  special  courses  designed  to 
meet  the  wants  of  teachers,  offered  by  the  heads  of  different 
collegiate  departments,  nothing  further  was  done  for  the 
professional  training  of  teachers  until  1893,  when  the  univer- 
sity established  a  collegiate  department  of  the  "  History  and 
Philosophy  of  Education,"  to  which  Edwin  A.  Alderman, 
Ph.  B.,  was  appointed  as  professor.  The  following  year 
Professor  Alderman  was  made  President  of  the  University, 
and  Clinton  White  Toms  was  appointed  Professor  of  Peda- 
gogy. A  year  later  Professor  Alderman  was  again  made  the 
head  of  the  pedagogical  department,  which  position  he  re- 
tained until  the  year  1897-98,  when  the  present  incumbent, 
Marcus  Cicero  Stephens  Noble,  became  professor  of  ped- 
agogy. 
THE  TRAINING  Siuce  the  organization  of  the  pedagogical 
OF  SECONDARY  department  in  1893,  the  work  has  been  planned 
TEACHERS,  morc  particularly  for  the  professional  training 
of  secondary  teachers,  as  is  indicated  by  the  following  para- 
graph :  "  This  Department  seeks  to  promote  the  study  of 
the  science  and  art  of  education,  to  give  training  in  the  or- 
ganization and  administration  of  schools,  and  to  prepare 
university  students  for  the  higher  positions  in  the  public  and 
private  school  service.     It  is  also  intended  to  bring  the  sec- 


92  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [92 

ondary  schools  of  the  State  into  closer  relations  with  the 
University. 

"The  courses  in  the  History  and  Philosophy  of  Education 
are  intended  to  have  for  the  student  a  definite  culture  value 
as  well  as  professional  value,  by  interpreting  for  him  institu- 
tions and  ideals  of  the  past."' 

The  courses  offered  in  the  department  of  pedagogy  have 
remained  quite  constant  and  are  (1901)  as  follows:  i.  The 
Science  of  Education  (2);  2.  The  Art  of  Teaching  (2); 
3.  History  of  Education  (2);  4.  Philosophy  of  Education 
(2)  ;  5.  The  Study  of  Childhood  (2)  ;  6.  Herbartian  Peda- 
gogy (2).  The  work  of  the  department  is  conducted  by  a 
single  professor  and  no  provision  is  made  for  practice 
teaching. 

DEPARTMENT  ^^^  ^^^^  ^^^  ^°''  ^^^  Organization  of  the  Uni- 
oF  PEDAGOGY,  vcrslty  of  Minnesota  was  passed  by  the  terri- 
uNivERsiTY  OF  torial  legislature  in  185  i.     The  following  years 

MINNESOTA  ,        .  .  .1.  T-         -^  '    j     -i. 

were  trymg  ones  to  the  new  lerntory,  and  it 
was  not  until  1867  that  the  preparatory  department  of  the 
university  was  opened  for  the  reception  of  students,  and  not 
until  two  years  later  that  the  first  collegiate  classes  were  or- 
ganized. At  this  time  the  State  was  already  in  possession 
of  three  State  normal  schools,  one  at  Winona,  established  in 
i860;  one  at  Mankato,  opened  in  1868;  and  one  at  St. 
Cloud,  opened  in  1869.  Probably  on  this  account,  no  pro- 
vision was  made  by  the  university  authorities  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  normal  department  in  connection  with  the 
university. 

The  first  mention  made  of  pedagogical  instruction  being 
offered  in  the  university  is  in  the  year  1885-86,  when  Harry 
P.  Judson,  M.  A.,  was   called   as   Professor  of  "History  and 

^  Catalos^e  of  i8gj-g4,  p.  53. 


I'-'^^Ji^O'lC  Moi 


OF 


93]  IJV  COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES  93 

Lecturer  on  Pedagogics."  The  only  statement,  however,  re- 
garding the  work,  that  I  have  been  able  to  find,  is  as  follows  : 
"  A  course  of  lectures  on  the  Science  and  Art  of  Teaching, 
elective  to  the  Senior  class,  is  given  in  the  third  term." ' 

This  arrangement  seems  to  have  continued  in  force  until 
the  year  1893,  when  ex-State  Superintendent  David  L. 
Kiehle,  LL.  D.,  was  appointed  lecturer  on  pedagogy,  and  a 
separate,  co-ordinate  department  of  pedagogy  was  estab- 
lished. Between  the  years  1885-93,  Professor  Judson  offered 
one  pedagogical  course,  the  last  term  of  each  year,  open  as 
an  elective  to  seniors. 

OUTLINE  OF  During  the  first  year  of  the  pedagogical  de- 
THE  DEPART-  partmcut  (1893)  there  were  three  courses 
MENT  IN  offered,  all  elective  to  seniors,  designated  as 
follows:  I.  "The  Development  of  Child 
Mind;"  II.  "The  American  School  System,  including  or- 
ganization and  supervision;"  III.  "Educational  History 
and  Theories." 

In  addition  to  the  above  there  was  established  a  special 
university  teachers'  course,  requiring  two  years  for  its  com- 
pletion, and  designed  to  furnish  preparation  for  teaching  for 
those  students  who  were  unable  to  complete  a  full  university 
course.  Candidates  for  entrance  were  required  to  satisfy  the 
heads  of  the  various  departments  under  whom  they  were  to 
receive  their  academic  instruction,  as  to  their  fitness. 

In  the  year  1894-95,  Dr.  Kiehle  was  made  professor  of 
pedagogy,  and  a  year  later  (Announcement  for  1895-96), 
after  a  number  of  slight  modifications,  the  university  teach- 
ers' course  is  described  as  follows  :  "  This  course  is  provided 
for  those  who  wish,  by  a  more  extended  scholarship  and  a 
more  systematic  study  of  education,  to  prepare  for  positions 
of  supervision  and  teaching  in  the  departments  of  higher 

*  Calendar  for  188^-86,  p.  54. 


c^4  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [q^ 

education.  It  is  also  for  the  general  student  who,  in  the 
home  and  in  the  State,  is  interested  in  the  proper  care, 
training  and  education  of  children  and  youth,  and  who  is 
willing  to  give  to  this  subject  the  same  intelligent  study  that 
is  accorded  to  other  problems  of  history  and  sociology." 

"The  course  covers  two  years,  or  twenty-four  terms'  of 
work.  In  order  to  secure  reasonable  thoroughness  in  the 
subject-matter,  at  least  fifteen  terms,  including  pedagogy, 
must  be  selected  from  the  following  list: 

Latin,  Botany,  Geology, 

French,  Zoology,  Pedagogy, 

German,  Physics,  Philosophy, 

English,  Chemistry,  History, 

Mathematics  and  Astronomy. 

and  in  which  no  study  shall  be  pursued  less  than  three 
terms.  The  remaining  terms  may  be  selected  under  the 
general  regulations  of  the  University.  The  course  of  special 
lectures  and  the  seminars  shall  be  optional  without  credit; 
provided,  however,  that  students  who  take  at  least  ten  or 
twelve  special  lectures,  with  the  required  readings  and  exam- 
inations upon  the  same — equivalent  to  half  a  term's  work — 
shall  be  allowed  one-half  term's  credit.  Students  completing 
the  course  prescribed  receive  the  University  Teachers' 
Certificate." 

CONDITION         "This  course  is  elective  to  juniors  and  seniors 
FOR  ENTRANCE  pursuing    TCgular    courses     in     the    college    of 
science,  literature  and  the  arts." 

"  It  is  also  open  to  all  graduates  from  the  advanced  course 
of  the  State  normal  schools  of  Minnesota  who  have  had  one 
year's  experience  in  teaching,  and   to  all  graduates  of  State 

^  At  this  time  the  University  was  running  on  a  three-term  basis,  and  what  is 
evidently  meant  by  the  word  "  term,"  as  used  above,  is  one  study  carried  for  four 
recitations  per  week  for  one-third  of  a  year. 


95]  IN  COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES  95 

high  schools  of  the  first  and  second  classes,  who   have   had 
two  years'  experience  in  teaching."  ' 

The  university  teachers'  course  as  outlined  above  re- 
mained practically  the  same  until  the  year  1900,  when  it  was 
discontinued  as  a  special  course  ;  the  university  teachers' 
certificate  being  granted  now  only  to  university  graduates  as 
indicated  below : 

"  Upon  graduation  from  the  college  of  science,  literature  and  arts,  students  who 
have  completed  two  terms  of  psychology  (or  one  of  psychology  and  one  of  logic) 
before  the  close  of  the  junior  year,  and  the  first  three  terms  of  pedagogy,  and  who 
have  attained  a  general  average  of  85  per  cent,  in  all  studies,  may  apply  for  and 
will  receive,  upon  the  vote  of  the  faculty,  the  University  State  Teachers'  Certificate, 
which  by  the  State  law  authorizes  them  to  teach  in  the  public  schools  of  Minne- 
sota for  two  years  from  its  date.  After  that  time,  upon  satisfactory  evidence  of 
success,  the  certificate  may  be  made  perpetual  by  the  endorsement  of  the  state 
superintendent  of  public  instruction  and  the  president  of  the  university."  ^ 

PRESENT  The    department    of    pedagogy    remains,  as 

CONDITION  vvhen  first  established  in  1893,  a  separate,  co- 
ordinate department  of  the  university.  Dr.  Kiehle  remained 
professor  in  charge  and  sole  instructor  until  his  resignation 
in  July,  1902,  when  Dr.  Geo.  F.  James  was  called  to  the 
department  as  Professor  of  Pedagogy.  The  courses  now 
offered  are  as  follows:  I.  Philosophy  of  Education;  II. 
Methodology;  III.  School  Organization  and  Administra- 
tion ;  IV.  Ancient  Education ;  V.  Mediaeval  and  Modern 
Education;  VI.  School  Systems;  VII.  Visitation  of  Schools ; 
VIII.  Special  Seminar  Courses. 

With  the  exception  of  the  lectures  given  by  Professor 
Judson  of  the  history  department  (1885-93),  the  thought  of 
the  work  in  pedagogy  has  been  aimed  rather  toward  the 
professional  preparation  of  secondary  teachers.  This  is  seen 
in  the  first  paragraph,  quoted   above,  describing  the  univer- 

^  Catalogue  for  the  year  j8g4-gj,  p.  93. 
'  University  Bulletin,  June  i,  1900,  p.  89. 


96  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [96 

sity  teachers'  course.  This  paragraph  still  continues  to  be 
published  in  the  university  catalogue  as  indicating  the  pur- 
pose of  the  pedagogical  department. 

UNIVERSITY  ^"  \^^-3i\i  the  State  University  and  the  State 
OF  UTAH,  Agricultural  College  are  separate  institutions, 
NORMAL       the  former  being  located  at  Salt  Lake  City  and 

DEPARTMENT       .11..  .        t  T^U  •  1       ^ 

the  latter  at  Logan.  Ihere  is  a  somewhat 
peculiar  arrangement  existing  in  this  State  whereby  the  State 
University  and  the  State  Normal  School  are  combined  into 
one  institution,  the  latter  being  established  as  a  sub-depart- 
ment of  the  former. 

The  State  Normal  School,  as  it  is  called,  is  conducted  in 
a  separate  building,  and  in  part  by  separate  instructors.  It 
maintains  a  model  training  school,  covering  the  first  eight 
grades,  and  ofifers  a  four  years'  normal  course,  the  fourth 
year  of  which  ranks  on  a  par  with  the  freshman  year  in  the 
university.  Aside  from  the  normal  department  (State  Nor- 
mal School),  the  object  of  which  is  to  prepare  elementary 
teachers,  there  is  a  collegiate  department  of  pedagogy  in- 
tended to  provide  for  high  school  teachers,  principals  and 
superintendents.  "The  purpose  of  the  university  in  offering 
advanced  work  in  pedagogical  subjects  is  more  especially  to 
prepare  those  of  its  graduates  who  may  select  such  work  for 
the  higher  positions  in  the  public  service,  such  as  those  of 
school  superintendents,  principals,  teachers  in  the  high 
schools,  etc."  ' 

The  department  of  pedagogy  was  established  in  1888,  but 
the  state  normal  school  dates  still  further  back. 

The  professor  of  pedagogy  is  also  principal  of  the  normal 
school,  and  the  professional  fnstruction  seems  to  be  about 
the  same,  whether  to  normal  or  college  students.  The  pro- 
fessional   courses    as    ofifered     in     1900    were    as    follows: 

'  University  Annual,  1 900-0 1,  p.  49. 


97]  ^N  COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES  97- 

"i.  The  Philosophy  of  Education;  2.  Advanced  Methods; 
3.  Advanced  Psychology;  4.  History  of  Education;  5. 
Pedagogy;  6.  Educational  Psychology;  7.  Special  Methods ; 
8.  Practice  or  Training." 

The  pedagogical  courses  do  not  lead  to  any  special  de- 
gree, but  graduates  of  the  University  who  complete  the  pro- 
fessional requirements  receive  in  addition  to  the  university 
degree,  a  special  "  Normal  Diploma." 

OTHER  STATE  Undcr  qultc  similar  arrangements  to  those 
UNIVERSITIES  dcscribcd  in  the  University  of  Utah,  the  state 
WITH  NORMAL  unlversitics  of  North  and  South  Dakota  and  of 

DEPARTMENTS     ttt  •  i  ,  l.\^        C.       ^   ,.  -Jr 

VVyommg  began  from  the  first  to  provide  for 
the  professional  training  of  teachers  through  separate  nor- 
mal departments.  Prior  to  the  division  of  the  Territory  and 
the  admission  of  the  states  of  North  and  South  Dakota, 
which  occurred  November  2,  1889, the  University  of  Dakota 
was  situated  at  Vermillion.  After  the  division  of  the  Terri- 
tory this  school  became  the  University  of  South  Dakota, 
while  the  University  of  North  Dakota  was  removed  to  Grand 
Forks.  In  the  former,  a  normal  department  had  been  es- 
tablished at  the  opening  of  the  institution  in  1884,  but  was 
discontinued  in  1890-91  for  the  following  reasons:  "By 
reason  of  reduced  appropriations  and  for  the  further  reason 
that  the  State  has  two  Normal  Schools,  the  Regents  have 
ordered  the  normal  department  discontinued  in  the  Uni- 
versity."' 

A  department  of  pedagogy  has  since  been  established 
(1894-95)  i"  charge  of  Geo.  M.  Smith,  A.  M.,  Professor  of 
Greek  Language  and  Literature,  and  Pedagogy,  now  (1901) 
Professor  of  Modern  Languages  and  Literature,  and 
Pedagogy. 

^  Catalogue  of  i8go-gi,  p.  48 


98  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [98 

In  the  University  of  North  Dakota  there  was 
UNIVERSITY  OF  gg^gblished   in   1891   both  a  collegiate   depart- 

NORTH    DAKOTA  ,  ,  ,  ,  ,       , 

ment  of  pedagogy  and  a  separate  normal  de- 
partment. Joseph  Kennedy,  B.  S.,  is  both  principal  of  the 
normal  school  and  professor  of  psychology  and  pedagogy 
in  the  university.  Graduates  of  the  normal  department  are 
admitted  to  junior  standing  in  the  university.  President 
Merrifield,  in  his  annual  report  for  1900,  speaks  of  the  nor- 
mal department  as  follows:  "The  Normal  Department  costs 
the  State  practically  nothing,  for  in  all  academic  subjects  the 
Normal  students  join  classes  already  formed,  while  in  the 
professional  subjects  they  come  under  the  instruction  of  the 
Department  of  Pedagogy,  which  in  all  modern  universities 
is  a  co-ordinate  and  essential  department." 

'*  The  aim  of  the  Normal  Department  is  to  prepare 
teachers  for  the  higher  grades  and  for  high  schools  through- 
out the  State." 

UNIVERSITY  In  Wyoming,  the  State  Normal  School  is 
OF  WYOMING  combined  with  the  State  University,  forming 
one  of  three  separate  departments  of  the  latter — collegiate, 
normal  and  preparatory.  The  principal  and  professor  of 
pedagogy  in  the  normal  department,  Henry  Merz,  M.  A.,  is 
also  professor  of  philosophy  and  social  science  in  the  Uni- 
versity. The  normal  department  was  established  in  1891, 
and  still  continues  to  constitute  the  only  professional  de- 
partment for  the  training  of  teachers  in  the  university. 

T.„x,,^>,TMA  In  the  West,  as  in  the  East,  denominational 

DENOMINA-  '  ' 

TioNAL  iNSTi-  Instltutions  for  higher  education  paved  the  way 
TUTioNs        {qj.    g^a|.g    universities,    but    like    their    eastern 
prototypes  they  have  been   more  conservative  and  far  less 
influenced  by  the   changing  ideals   of  the  people.     Conse- 
quently, they  have  been  slower  in  modifying  their  courses  to 


99]  J^'  COLLEGES  AND  UNIVERSITIES  99 

meet  the  demands  for  professionally  trained  teachers. 
Nevertheless,  many  denominational  institutions,  especially 
throughout  the  great  central  west,  have  made  commendable 
efforts  to  bring  their  schools  into  direct  touch  with  the 
people  and  to  establish  special  departments  for  the  training 
of  teachers.  Such  institutions  have  usually  followed  in  the 
wake  of  the  state  institutions  as  above  described  and  pre- 
sent but  little  regarding  normal  training  that  is  dififerent  or 
especially  new.     One  illustration  will  suffice. 

In  the  early   history  of  Iowa  college  (in  the 

IOWA    COLLEGE,  -^  •'  fc>        V 

DEPARTMENT  sixtlcs)  somc  cffort  was  made  to  provide  pros- 
OF  PEDAGOGY  pectivc  tcachcrs  with  a  little  elementary  peda- 
gogical instruction,  chiefly  in  connection  with  the  prepara- 
tory department  of  the  college.  In  1871  a  definite 
movement  was  inaugurated  to  raise  an  endowment  for  a 
professorship  in  the  college  of  the  "Theory  and  Practice  of 
Teaching."  This  was  not  successful  until  1879,  but  the 
trustees  had  gone  forward  with  the  plan  and  had  established 
a  combined  "Normal  and  English  Department,"  authorizing 
that  the  normal  students  be  allowed  to  recite  with  such 
classes  in  the  college,  academy  and  English  department  as 
they  were  prepared  to  johi. 

The  department  of  pedagogy  as  first  established  (1879) 
was  designated  the  "  Department  of  the  Theory  and  Practice 
of  Teaching"  and  consisted  of  one  year's  course  in  didactics, 
covering  the  history  of  education,  the  philosophy  of  edu- 
cation and  methods  of  teaching.  The  non-professional 
subjects  were  given  in  connection  with  the  preparatory, 
academic  or  collegiate  classes. 

In  describing  the  advantages  of  the  department  the  cata- 
logue of  1890  says  :  "  One  of  the  peculiar  advantages  of  this 
Department  is  this :  Candidates  for  the  profession  of  teach- 
ing, if  somewhat  advanced  in  some  of  the  subject  matter  to 


100  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [iqo 

be  taught  in  our  schools,  are  not  obliged  to  go  through  an 
extended  Normal  School  Course  of  several  years,  including 
much  repetition  in  branches  already  mastered  ;  but,  by  giving 
all  their  time  to  one  or  two  branches,  for  which  they  have 
special  aptitude  or  in  which  they  have  made  comparatively 
less  proficiency,  they  can  accomplish  in  a  year,  in  these 
specialties  and  in  Didactics,  what  would  require,  under  other 
circumstances  several  years'  time."^ 

In  1891-92  the  title  of  the  department  was  changed  to 
that  of  the  Department  of  Pedagogy,  and  the  title  of  Rev, 
K.  Edson,  A.  M.,  who  had  been  with  the  department  from 
the  first,  was  changed  to  that  of  "  Iowa  Professor  of  Peda- 
gogy." The  following  year  the  new  Department  of  Philos- 
ophy and  Pedagogy  was  created,  and  Jas.  Simmons,  Jr.,  A.  M., 
was  called  as  Professor  of  Philosophy  and  Pedagogics,  an 
arrangement  which  still  continues  in  force.  Since  the  com- 
bination of  philosophy  and  pedagogy  in  one  department, 
philosophy,  psychology,  ethics  and  logic  receive  more  at- 
tention and  pedagogy  less.  In  the  latter  subject  are  offered 
two  courses,  one  on  the  "  History  of  Educational  Theory 
and  Practice,"  three  hours  per  week.  First  semester,  and  one 
on  Educational  Psychology,  three  hours  per  week.  Second 
semester. 

There  seems  to  be  more  of  a  tendency  on  the  part  of  de- 
nominational institutions  to  combine  departments,  probably 
on  account  of  the  scarcity  of  funds.  Consequently  separate 
departments  of  pedagogy  are  less  common  here  than  in 
more  prosperous  institutions. 

We  have  given  in  the  above  chapter  a  some- 

SUMMARY  ,  ,       .     ,  r      ,  1    •  ,1  •        1 

what  brief  survey  of  the  history  of  pedagogical 
instruction  as  it  occurred  in  those  universities  that  were  first 
in  making  provision  for  the  professional  training  of  teach- 

*  Catalogue  oj  i8go,  p.  39. 


1 0 1  ]  IN  COLLEGES  A  ND  UNI  VE  RSI  TIES  i  q  j 

ers.  The  universities  concerned  are  generally  state  insti- 
tutions and  belong  for  the  most  part  to  those  of  the  Great 
Central  West.  The  two  schools  from  the  South — the  one 
from  Kentucky  and  the  other  from  North  Carolina — are  in- 
cluded, not  so  much  on  account  of  the  time  when  pedagog- 
ical instruction  was  first  offered,  as  that  they  were  the  first 
of  their  class  in  the  South  to  make  provision  for  the  work, 
and  in  the  treatment  of  the  subject  are  representative  of 
the  southern  type. 

From  this  brief  sketch  of  the  early  history  of  pedagogical 
instruction  in  this  country,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  first  efforts 
made  by  the  universities  for  the  professional  training  of 
teachers  did  not  take  place  in  the  universities  at  all,  but  in 
their  preparatory  departments,  or  in  separate  normal  attach- 
ments. The  East  had  its  academies,  and  later  its  high 
schools,  from  which  students  might  go  thoroughly  prepared 
for  college  and  university  work ;  but  in  the  West,  with  its 
fewer  academies  and  less  efificient  high  schools,  preparatory 
departments  became  necessary  adjuncts  of  the  universities. 
These  took  the  place  of  high  schools  for  the  few  who  de- 
sired collegiate  training,  for  the  others  a  common  school  ed- 
ucation sufficed.  Under  these  circumstances,  the  most 
pressing  need  was  for  more  efficient  common  school  teachers. 
In  the  East,  normal  schools  had  already  been  established 
for  this  purpose  (the  training  of  elementary  teachers),  but 
in  the  West,  no  provision  had  yet  been  made.  Universities 
responded  to  the  demand  by  establishing  normal  depart- 
ments. Later,  when  state  normal  schools  were  established, 
the  university  normal  departments  were  either  discontinued 
or  modified  to  meet  a  new  demand — the  professional  train- 
ing of  secondary  teachers. 

The  modifications  and  growth  in  these  normal  depart- 
ments reflect  the  changing  conditions  of  education.  At  first, 
when    there   was   but    little   need   of    high  school  teachers. 


I02  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [102 

attention  was  given  almost  entirely  to  instruction  in  the 
elementary  subjects,  orthography,  reading,  writing,  etc.,  few 
or  no  professional  studies  were  offered  ;  but  later  with  the 
coming  in  of  state  normal  schools,  and  with  the  rapidly 
increasing  number  of  high  schools,  the  preparatory  depart- 
ments of  the  universities  were  gradually  discontinued  and 
the  normal  departments  were  either  dropped  or  changed  to 
collegiate  departments  of  pedagogy.  This  growth  in  peda- 
gogical instruction  is  interesting  in  many  ways.  It  shows 
how  the  universities  have  been  influenced  not  only  in  mod- 
ifying their  courses  of  instruction,  but  also  in  adding  new 
departments  in  order  to  meet  the  real  wants  of  the  teaching 
profession.  It  calls  attention  to  the  antagonism  which  arose 
between  state  normal  schools  and  the  normal  departments 
of  the  universities  when  the  latter  seemed  to  be  encroaching 
upon    the    field    for  which    the    former   had    been   created. 

Again  it  brings  to  light  the  intense  opposition  with  which 
the  new  normal  departments  with  their  short  cuts  and 
cheapened  degrees  (B.  Pe.,  etc.)  were  met  by  many  of  the 
older  collegiate  departments  with  their  fixed  curricula  and 
mediaeval  methods ;  an  opposition  that  was  heightened  be- 
cause these  normal  departments  furnished  a  loop-hole 
through  which  women  were  gaining  entrance  to  the  uni- 
versities. 

From    the    university    normal  school  attachment    of   the 
most  elementary  sort  to  the  present  collegiate  department  of 
education,  devoted  entirely    to    the  professional  training 
teachers  and  to  the  scientific  study  of  educational  problerr 
has  been  a  simple  process  of  growth  and  adaptation  witl 
out  definite  or  well  defined  ideals.     This  was  quite  dififere) 
from  the  beginning  of  State  normal  schools  in  this  country, 
as  shown  in  a  former  chapter,  and  is  also  different  from  the 
second  great  movement  in   the  universities   for  the   profes- 
sional training  of  secondary  teachers,  to  be  discussed   in  the 
following  chapter. 


CHAPTER  IV 

HISTORY  OF  THE  SPECIAL  MOVEMENT  FOR  THE 

PROFESSIONAL  PREPARATION  OF 

SECONDARY  TEACHERS 

In   chapter  two  we  gave  a  brief  account  of 

PREFACE  ^  ,         ,  ,  .        1       TT     •        , 

the  early  normal  school  movement  m  the  United 
States,  which  had  for  its  principal  object  the  fitting  of  com- 
mon school  teachers.  It  was  a  movement  that  originated 
with  the  common  people  or  those  interested  in  the  welfare 
of  the  masses.  In  chapter  three  we  continued  the  history 
by  giving  a  brief  survey  of  the  earliest  university  movement 
for  the  special  preparation  of  teachers  and  its  gradual  growth 
into  something  higher.  This,  Hke  the  former,  was  a  move- 
ment that  originated  with  the  people — from  without  rather 
than  from  within  the  universities.  It  started  with  no  well-  ;> 
defined  purpose  other  than  the  special  training  of  teachers 
for  all  grades  of  public  school  work — elementary  and  sec- 
ondary— though,  at  first,  the  greatest  stress  was  placed  upon 
the  preparation  of  elementary  teachers.  As  already  indi- 
cated, the  movement  passed  through  a  natural  process  of 
evolution,  changing  with  the  conditions  of  education  until 
•^.lally  it  became  most  concerned  with  the  professional  pre- 

^ration  of  secondary  teachers. 

!  In  this  chapter  we  aim  to  give,  in  part,  the  history  of  the 
^aird  great  movement  for  the  professional  training  of  teach- 
ers. This  movement,  like  the  early  normal  school  move- 
ment, began  with  a  definite  purpose — the  professional  prepa- 
ration of  secondary  teachers, — an  ideal  which  has  continued 
to  be  its  chief  concern. 

103]  103 


104  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [104 

While  the  other  movements  came  from  the  people  through 
a  desire  for  better  schools,  this  one  seems  to  have  originated 
with  scholars  and  professional  men  who,  seeing  the  great 
waste  and  inefiEiciency  of  college  graduates  that  enter  the 
profession  of  teaching  (mostly  in  high  schools),  desired  to 
remedy  the  evil.  It  was  a  thoroughly  scientific  movement 
and  has  greatly  benefited  the  teaching  profession.  Prior  to 
the  beginning  of  the  m.ovement,  in  the  early  eighties,  many 
first-class  high  schools  had  been  established  and  the  number 
was  rapidly  increasing.  These  furnished  a  new  and  import- 
ant field  of  activity  for  college  graduates  and  the  stronger 
normal  school  graduates ;  both,  however,  were  deficient  in 
preparation,  the  former  through  lack  of  professional  knowl- 
edge, the  latter  through  want  of  scholarship.  Hence  the 
need  for  the  movement. 

In  presenting  the  subject  it  has  seemed  best  to  give  an 
account  of  the  history  of  the  movement  as  it  occurred  in  a 
number  of  the  leading  universities  showing  typical  charac- 
teristics. 

Prior  to  the  establishment  of  the  state  nor- 

MICHIGAN    UNI- 
VERSITY, DE-    mal  school  at  Ypsilanti  in  1850,  an   effort  had 
PARTMENT  OF   bccu  madc  to   have  such  a  school  opened  in 

EDUCATION  ,.  .,,      .1  -     ,  •  •.  TOO 

connection  with  the  state  university.  In  1848 
the  matter  went  so  far  as  to  have  a  bill  for  normal  instruction 
in  the  university  pass  the  senate,  but  it  failed  to  become  a 
law.  The  desire  for  a  normal  department  had  come  from 
without  rather  than  from  within  the  university,  so  when,  two 
years  later,  the  state  normal  school  was  established  all 
parties  were  for  the  time  satisfied. 

Elizabeth  M.  Farrand  in  her  History  of  the  University  of 
Michigan  says :  "Some  instruction  in  Pedagogy  had  long 
been  desired,  when  in  1879,  Mr.W.  H.  Payne  was  appointed 
Professor  of  the  Science  and  Art  of  Teaching.     The  estab- 


105]  HISTORY  OF  Sf*nClAL  MOVEMENT  105 

lishment  of  this  chair  was  followed  by  the  ofTer  of  a  "teach- 
er's diploma"  to  any  one  receiving  a  Bachelor's  or  Master's 
degree,  provided  he  had  completed  one  of  the  courses  in 
Pedagogy."' 

Three  years  before  the  establishment  of  the  department 
of  the  science  and  the  art  of  teaching  there  was  offered  a 
special  teacher's  diploma,  referred  to  in  the  catalogue  as  fol- 
lows ;  "  Any  member  of  the  senior  class,  who  pursues 
courses  of  study  with  reference  to  preparation  for  teaching, 
and  who  by  special  examinations  shows  such  marked  profi- 
ciency as  qualifies  him  to  give  instruction,  may  receive  a 
Special  Diploma  signed  by  the  President  and  the  Professors 
who  had  charge  of  the  studies  which  he  has  taken  with  this 
object  in  view,"^'  However,  the  real  department  of  educa- 
tion, or  of  the  "  Science  and  the  Art  of  Teaching,"  as  it  was 
named,  was  not  opened  until  the  fall  of  1879,  when  Dr.  W. 
H.  Payne,  who  has  since  become  so  well  and  favorably  known 
in  educational  circles,  began  his  first  course  of  lectures  as 
professor  in  charge. 
THE  NATURE  The  growth  of  the  department  is  interesting 
OF  THE  WORK  q^  account  of  the  strength  of  the  man  at  the 
head  and  because  it  was  the  first  department  of  its  kind  to 
be  established  in  the  United  States. 3  During  the  first  year 
but  two  courses  of  study  were  offered,  one  for  each  semester, 
each  representing  two  hours  or  exercises  per  week.  The 
one  given  the  first  semester  was  entitled,  "  Practical ;  em- 
bracing school  supervision,  grading,  courses  of  study,  exam- 

*  History  of  the  University  of  Michigan,  by  Elizabeth  M.  Farrand,  p.  270. 

*  University  Calendar  for  187J-76,  p.  46. 

'University  normal  departments  which  grew  into  independent  departments  of 
pedagogy,  as  in  Iowa  University,  had  been  established  earlier,  but  even  in  their 
modified  forms  their  ideals  seemed  less  specific  and  definite  than  that  of  the  de- 
partment of  education  in  the  University  of  Michigan. 


I06  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [io6 

illations,  the  art  of  instructing  and  governing,  school  archi- 
tecture, school  hygiene,  school  law,  etc."'  The  course  con- 
sisted of  a  series  of  lectures  by  the  professor  on  the  above 
topics,  and  of  assigned  readings  for  the  students.  It  was 
followed  in  the  second  semester  by  a  course  on  educational 
theories  and  doctrines,  entitled,  "  Historical,  Philosophical 
and  Critical;  embracing  history  of  education,  the  compari- 
son and  criticism  of  the  systems  in  different  countries,  the 
outlines  of  educational  science,  the  science  of  teaching,  and 
a  critical  discussion  of  theories  and  methods."  * 

The  second  year  of  the  department  the  courses  were  re- 
peated as  above,  though  the  number  of  exercises  per  week 
was  increased  to  four.  The  manner  of  instruction  was  also 
changed  from  that  of  lectures  to  the  study  of  a  text,  followed 
by  recitations  and  lectures.  Fitch's  "  Lectures  on  Teach- 
ing "  furnished  the  text  for  course  i,  and  Bain's  "  Education 
as  a  Science"  was  used  as  the  text  for  course  2.  The  fol- 
lowing year  two  additional  courses  were  ofTered,  being  rather 
expansions  from  courses  i  and  2.  Course  3,  given  the  first 
semester  two  hours  per  week,  was  on  "  School  Supervision  ; 
embracing  general  school  management,  the  art  of  grading 
and  arranging  courses  of  study,  the  conduct  of  institutes, 
etc."  Course  4,  given  the  second  semester,  also  a  two  hours' 
study,  was  a  seminary  course,  devoted  for  the  first  few  years 
to  the  study  of  educational  classics  (Spencer's  "Education," 
Rousseau's  "  Emile,"  Laurie's  "Life  of  Comenius")  and 
later  to  the  study  of  special  topics  in  the  history  and  phil- 
osophy of  education. 

In  1882-83  (the  fourth  year  of  the  department)  course  5 
was  added,  being  a  lecture  course  on  the  history  of  education, 
coming  twice  a  week  during  the  first  semester.  Three  years 
later  (1885-86),  course  5  was  extended  to  cover  both 
semesters,  thus  forming  courses  5  and  7 ;   and  course  6,  de- 

'  University  Calendar  for  i8jg-8o.  *  Ibid. 


10/]  HISTORY  OF  SPECIAL  MOVEMENT  107 

voted  to  a  comparative  study  of  educational  systems,  was 
oft'ered.  As  will  be  seen,  all  these  courses  are  simply  en- 
largements from  the  general  courses  i  and  2,  as  offered  the 
first  year  of  the  department.  From  this  time  forward  but 
few  changes  have  been  made  in  the  courses.  The  number- 
ing of  the  courses  has  been  slightly  modified,  the  manner  of 
instruction  has  varied,  and  in  some  cases  the  number  of  ex- 
ercises per  week  has  changed,  but  the  body  of  the  work  has 
remained  quite  constant. 

The  next  change  in  the  curriculum  occurred  in  1894-95, 
when  course  8,  "The  great  exponents  of  educational  thought 
and  practice ;  a  historical  expository  course  for  general 
students,"  was  offered  instead  of  the  former  seminary  course 
now  known  as  course  7,  and  henceforth  omitted.  The  texts 
for  course  8  were  Davidson's  Aristotle  and  Ancient  Educa- 
tional Ideals,  West's  Alcuin  and  Browning's  Educational 
Theories. 

In  1899-1900  two  new  courses  were  added  to  the  depart- 
ment, course  9,  "  Child  Study,"  two  hours  per  week,  first 
semester,  text,  Taylor's  The  Study  of  the  Child;  and  course 
10,  "  Social  Phases  of  Education,"  one  hour  per  week,  first 
semester,  text.  Button's  Social  Phases  of  Education.  The 
work  of  the  department  as  it  now  stands  is  outlined  in  the 
calendar  as  follows : 

FIRST  "I.  Practical  Pedagogy.     The  arts  of  teach- 

sEMESTER  jng  and  governing  ;  methods  of  instruction  and 
general  school-room  practice;  school  hygiene;  school  law; 
lectures  with  reading.  Hinsdale's  Teaching  the  Language- 
Arts,  and  How  to  Study  and  Teach  History.     Four  hours. 

3.  History  of  Education,  Ancient  and  Mediaeval.  Recita- 
tions and  lectures.  Text-book:  Compayre's  History  of 
Pedagogy.  The  subjects  treated  in  the  lectures  are  Oriental, 
Greek  and  Roman  education,  and  the  Rise  and  Early  De- 
velopment of  Christian  Schools.     Three  hours. 


I08  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [io8 

5.  School  Supervision.  General  school  management,  the 
art  of  grading  and  arranging  courses  of  study,  the  conduct 
of  mstitutes,  etc.  Recitations  and  lectures.  Text-book : 
Payne's  Chapters  on  School  Supervision.     Three  hours. 

9,  Child  Study.  Historical  sketch ;  a  discussion  of  the 
factors  which  influence  intellectual  development;  methods 
of  child  study;  physiology  and  psychology  of  childhood; 
study  of  special  problems,  such  as  the  education  of  the 
nervous  system,  the  hygiene  of  studies,  motor  ability,  tem- 
perament, period  of  adolescence,  children's  drawings,  inter- 
ests, literature,  fears,  anger,  lies,  etc.  The  aim  throughout  is 
to  treat  each  topic  from  a  distinctly  practical  pedagogical 
point  of  view.  Recitations  and  lectures.  Text-book: 
Taylor's  A  Study  of  the  Child,     Two  hours. 

10.  Social  Phases  of  Education.  A  consideration  of  the 
school  as  a  social  factor  in  its  relation  to  the  child,  to  the 
home,  to  the  church  and  to  the  State ;  also  a  discussion  of 
the  relation  of  education  to  vocation  and  to  crime.  Lectures 
and  recitations.  Text-book:  Button's  Social  Phases  of 
Education.     One  hour. 

SECOND  2.  Theoretical  and  Critical  Pedagogy.     The 

SEMESTER  principles  underlying  the  arts  of  teaching  and 
governing.  Lectures  and  readings.  Hinsdale's  Studies  in 
Education.     Four  hours. 

4.  History  of  Modern  Education.  Recitations  and  lec- 
tures. Text-book:  Compayre's  History  of  Pedagogy.  The 
topics  to  be  dealt  with  in  the  lectures  are  the  movements  of 
modern  educational  thought  and  practice.     Three  hours. 

6.  The  Comparative  Study  of  Educational  Systems, 
Domestic  and  Foreign.  Lectures  and  reading.  Two 
hours. 

7.  History  of  Education  in  the  United  States.  The 
course  deals  with  the  salient  features  of  the  subject  from  the 
earliest  time,  but  particular  attention  is  paid  to  the  state  of 


1 09 1  ^^^^  ^^^  ^  ^^  ^^^'  ^^-^^  ^^  VEMENT  1 09 

education  in  the  colonies,  and  to  the  common  school  revival 
in  the  first  half  of  the  present  century.  The  recent  univer- 
sity development  is  also  described.  Lectures  and  reading. 
Hinsdale's  Horace  Mann  and  the  Common  School  Revival 
in  the  United  States  and  Documents  Illustrative  of  American 
Educational  History,  are  subjects  of  examination.  One 
hour.' 

8.  History  of  Educational  Thought.  The  course  deals 
with  Greek  and  Roman  antiquity  and  the  Middle  Ages,  and 
with  the  principal  of  the  great  movements  of  thought  in 
modern  times.  Lectures  and  reading.  Davidson's  Aristotle 
and  Ancient  Educational  Ideals,  West's  Alcuin  and  the  Rise 
of  Christian  Schools,  and  Browning's  Educational  Theories, 
are  principal  books  of  reference.     One  hour."  ^ 

Besides  the  special  courses  in  pedagogics,  other  depart- 
ments of  the  university  have  organized  "Teachers'  Courses." 
In  1880-81  there  were  at  least  four  such  courses  offered  by 
the  departments  of  Latin,  Greek,  French  and  Physics,  and 
other  departments  have  since  been  added  to  the  list. 

teacher's  No  special  pedagogical  degree  is  offered,  but 

DIPLOMA  the  work  of  the  department  is  credited  toward 
the  regular  university  degrees  in  the  same  manner  as  that  of 
other  literary  or  scientific  departments.  A  special  teacher's 
diploma  had  been  offered  from  the  beginning  of  the  de- 
partment, but  it  was  not  until  1 891  that  the  state  legis- 
lature passed  an  act  giving  authority  to  the  Faculty  of  the 
department  of  the  science  and  art  of  teaching  to  issue  cer- 
tificates to  holders  of  the  university  teacher's  diploma, 
which  certificates  "  shall  serve  as  a  legal  certificate  of  quali- 

> Course  7,  proposed  for  1900-01,  has  been  described  heretofore  as  "The  Study 
and  Discussion  of  special  topics  in  the  History  and  Philosophy  of  Education,  two 
hours  per  week." — G.  W.  A.  L. 

*  University  Calendar  i8gg-igoo,  pp.  81-2. 


no  TRAINING  QF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  \\\o 

fications  to  teach  in  any  of  the  schools  of  the  State."  The 
teacher's  diploma  is  granted  to  such  students  only  as  have 
received  from  the  university  the  degree  of  B.  A.,  M.  A.,  or 
Ph.  D.,  and  have  met  the  following  requirements: 

1.  "He  must  have  taken  courses  i  and  2  and  some  other 
three-hour  course  in  the  science  and  art  of  teaching." 

2.  "He  must  have  taken  such  teacher's  course  or  courses 
as  may  be  prescribed  in  some  one  of  the  other  departments 
of  instruction  that  offer  such  courses." 

3.  "  He  must  have  shown  such  ability  in  his  work  as  will, 
in  the  judgment  of  the  professors  interested,  entitle  him  to 
receive  such  diploma,  it  being  distinctly  understood  that 
work  good  enough  to  count  towards  fulfilling  the  require- 
ments for  a  degree  is  not  of  necessity  good  enough  to  count 
for  this  purpose."  ' 

Dr.  W.  H.  Payne  continued  at  the  head  of  the  depart- 
ment until  1888,  when  he  resigned  to  accept  the  Presidency 
of  the  Peabody  Normal  College,  Nashville,  Tenn.,  and  was 
succeeded  by  the  present  incumbent.  Professor  B.  A.  Hins- 
dale, LL.  D.,  ex-Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  Cleve- 
land, Ohio.^ 

THE  AIM  OF  The  aims  of  the  University  in  providing  in- 
THE  struction   in   the  Science  and  Art  of  Teaching 

DEPARTMENT  ^j.g  summarizcd  in  the  University  calendar  as 
follows : 

"  I.  To  fit  University  students  for  the  higher  positions  in 
the  public  school  service. 

"2.  To  promote  the  study  of  educational  science. 

*  University  Calendar  for  i8g(^igoo,  p.  Il6. 

'  Professor  B.  A.  Hinsdale  died  at  Atlanta,  Ga.,  November  29,  19CO,  and  Dr. 
W.  H.  Payne  accepted  a  call  to  return  to  the  head  of  his  old  department  in  the 
University  of  Michigan. 


Ill]  HISTORY  OF  SPECIAL  MOVEMENT  i  \  i 

"  3.  To  teach  the  history  of  education  and  of  educational 
systems  and  doctrines. 

"  4.  To  secure  to  teaching  the  rights,  prerogatives  and  ad- 
vantages of  a  profession. 

"  5.  To  give  a  more  perfect  unity  to  our  State  educational 
system  by  bringing  the  secondary  schools  into  closer  re- 
lations to  the  Univsrsity." 

The  original  aim  of  the  department  is  shown  even  more 
clearly  in  an  early  history  of  the  work,  written  by  W.  H. 
Payne  in  1886,  from  which  we  add  the  following  statements: 
"  The  report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  for 
1883  shows  that  there  were  at  that  time  twenty-seven  pub- 
lic schools,  each  employing  fifteen  or  more  teachers.  Of 
these  twenty-seven  schools,  sixteen  had  superintendents  who 
were  educated  in  the  University,  six  were  in  charge  of  men 
who  were  educated  in  schools  outside  of  the  State,  five  were 
supervised  by  graduates  of  the  State  Normal  School."  .  .  . 
"  Under  this  condition  of  educational  affairs  the  logic  of  the 
case  is  very  simple  and  very  conclusive.  '  The  function  of 
the  university,'  says  Mr.  Fitch,  '  is  to  teach  and  supply  the 
world  with  its  teachers.'  In  fact,  the  University  of  Mich- 
igan had  for  years  been  performing  this  function,  but  in  an 
informal,  unintentional  way.  Why  not  give  the  graduate 
who  purposes  to  teach  the  opportunity  to  learn,  at  least,  the 
theory  of  his  art,  in  a  more  or  less  articulate  manner?  Why 
not  teach  in  the  University  the  cardinal  doctrines  of  educa- 
tion, so  that  the  entire  public  school  system  of  the  State 
may  be  affected  through  a  process  of  downward  dif- 
fusion?"   

"In  organizing  the  courses  of  instruction,  the  general  aim 
was  to  offer  opportunities  for  the  study  of  education  in  its 
three  main  phases,  the  practical,  the  scientific  and.  the  his- 
torical."   


1 1 2  TRAINING  OF  SECONDAR  Y  TEA  CHERS  \\\2 

DEPARTMENTS        "  It  WES  ncvcr  the  intent  to  duplicate,  in  any 
OF  EDUCATION  rcspcct,  the  work  of  the  State  Normal  School ; 

NOT  INTENDED     .  ,  ^u        /:       i.     "i.        C     IJ         r  t'  U 

for,  from   the  first,  its  held  of  operations  has 

TO  DUPLICATE  '  '  ^ 

NORMAL  been  predetermined  by  the  limits  of  its  aca- 
scHooLs  demic  course  of  study.  It  is  a  school  of  sec- 
ondary instruction,  and  so  the  scholarship  of  its  graduates  is 
simply  on  a  par  with  the  scholarship  that  is  attained  in  high 
schools  of  the  first  class.  If  there  is  any  well-established 
principle  in  school  economy  it  is  this :  the  scholarship  of  the 
teacher  should  be  considerably  broader  than  the  scholarship 
of  his  most  advanced  pupils.  This  law  at  once  determines, 
on  a  priori  grounds,  the  status  of  normal  schools  with  re- 
spect to  the  supply  of  teachers,  and  the  historical  confirma- 
tion of  this  law  is  seen  in  the  facts  above  recited,  and  from 
which  it  appears  that,  after  a  prosperous  career  of  more  than 
thirty  years,  there  were  but  five  schools  in  the  State  em- 
ploying fifteen  or  more  teachers  that  were  under  the  super- 
vision of  graduates  from  the  State  Normal  School,  while 
sixteen  such  schools  were  supervised  by  men  who  had  their 
training  in  this  university.  It  is  thus  seen  that  the  upper 
limit  of  what  we  may  call  the  normal  field,  and  the  lower 
limit  of  the  university  field,  fall  somewhat  within  the  high 
school  grade  of  the  public  school  system.  In  providing 
for  the  professional  study  of  education  in  the  University, 
there  was  never  a  thought  of  making  the  slightest  encroach- 
ment on  the  actual  and  historical  territory  of  the  Normal 
School ;  and  during  the  last  seven  years  there  has  been  no 
evidence  that  the  line  defining  the  two  fields  has  been  sen- 
sibly disturbed."  .  .  .  "  In  the  education  of  teachers,  then, 
the  university  and  the  normal  school  have  independent 
spheres  of  activity ;  or,  if  there  is  any  common  ground,  it  is 
a  narrow  tract  within  the  high  school  grade  that  has  always 
been  common  ground  and  is  doubtless  destined  always  to 
remain  so."  ' 

•  Contributions  to  the  Science  of  Education,  by  W.  H.  Payne,  pp.  336  ff. 


113]  HISTORY  OF  SPECIAL  MOVEMENT  j  j  3 

v,^^  ,.^„  ^T.r-        It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  th.nt  the  ob- 

NOT  FOR  THE 

TRAINING  OF   ject  of  thc  department  was  not  to  train  clement- 
ELEMENTARY    gj-y    tcachcrs,  which   would  have  been   to   en- 

TEACHERS  i  ,r  j       /    1.1.  1  u         1 

croach  upon  the  ground  of  the  normal  school ; 
but  the  object  as  expressed  and  carried  out  was  to  train 
teachers  for  high  schools  and  for  supervision.  Dr.  Payne 
does  not  believe  that  the  academic  knowledge  of  normal 
graduates  was  sufhcient  to  prepare  them  for  the  higher 
positions  in  public  school  teaching.  In  another  connection 
he  says :  "  As  at  present  constituted,  the  normal  schools  are 
not  fitted  to  dispense  the  professional  education  needed  by 
head  masters,  principals,  superintendents,  or  even  first  assist- 
ants in  high  schools."  ' 

The  quotation  which  Dr.  Payne  gives  from  the  report  of 
the  State  Superintendent  for  1883,  is  certainly  an  unusually 
favorable  one  for  college  graduates.  Most  of  the  data  that 
the  writer  has  been  able  to  find  bearing  on  the  subject,  in- 
dicates that,  prior  to  the  establishment  of  chairs  of  pedagogy 
in  the  universities,  the  majority  of  the  more  responsible  > 
positions  in  the  public  school  service  went  to  normal  school 
graduates  in  preference  to  college  graduates.  In  Nebraska 
it  has  been  within  the  last  six  years  that  university  grad- 
uates have  been  given  preference  over  normal  school  grad- 
uates for  positions  in  high  schools  and  as  principals  and 
superintendents. 

Michigan  was  one  of  the  early  states  to  establish  high 
schools.  Superintendent  Mayhew,  in  his  report  for  1848, 
thus  mentions  these  schools :  "  This  class  of  institutions, 
which  may  be  made  to  constitute  the  connecting  link  be- 
tween the  ordinary  common  school  and  the  State  Univer- 
sity, is  fast  gaining  upon  the  confidence  of  the  people. 
Some    of    them    have    already    attained    a    standing    rarely 

*  Contribution  to  the  Science  of  Education^  by  W.  H.  Payne,  p.  307. 


qi4  TRAmiNG  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  {l\\ 

equaled  by  the  academical  institutions  of  older  states."  ' 
Furthermore,  the  State  Normal  School,  as  established  in 
1850,  was  for  the  purpose  of  preparing  common  school 
teachers,  and  it  did  not  change  from  this  purpose  until 
1878,  when  it  enlarged  its  curriculum  and  endeavored  to 
prepare  teachers  -for  all  grades  of  public  school  service. 
•'  It  is  believed  that  the  various  courses  prescribed  will, 
when  thoroughly  mastered,  fit  young  gentlemen  and  ladies 
for  positions  as  assistants,  principals  and  superintend'  '-t'^  in 
all  classes  of  the  public  schools."  '  It  is  probably  ae  in 
part  to  the  early  establishment  of  high  schools  and  the  late 
enlargement  of  the  State  Normal  School  to  make  provision 
for  such  teachers,  that,  in  the  above  comparison,  so  many 
more  college  graduates  were  found  in  responsible  positions. 

NO  PRACTICE  No  provision  has  been  made  in  the  Univer- 
TEACHiNG  gj^.y  Jqj.  practice  teaching.  In  speaking  on  this 
point.  Dr.  Payne  says:  "Considering  the  particular  educa- 
tional problem  I  have  been  set  to  solve,  I  could  not  well 
have  a  practice  school  if  I  would ;  and  from  all  the  light 
that  comes  to  me  from  observation  and  reflection,  I  would/ 
not  have  such  an  adjunct  to  my  work  if  I  could."  ^ 

We  have  devoted  much  more  space  to  the  history  of  the 
professional  training  of  teachers  in  the  University  of  Mich- 
igan than  was  our  first  intent,  and  probably  more  space  than 
will  be  necessary  to  give  to  any  other  institution.  The  Uni- 
versity of  Michigan  being  the  first  among  the  institutions  of 
higher  education  to  establish  a  department  of  education  for 
the  distinct  purpose  of  the  professional  preparation  of  sec- 
ondary teachers;  and  the  work  of  the  department  being  so 
well  planned  and  executed,  and  at  the  same  time  so  char- 
acteristic of  the  work  as  ofifered  by  other  departments  of  edu- 

^  I'.dtication  in  Michigan,  by  W.  L.  Smith,  p.  49.  ^  Ibid.,  p.  102. 

*  Contributions  to  the  Science  of  Education,  p.  340. 


115]  HIST  OR  Y  OF  SPECIAL  MOVEMENT  i  i  5 

cation,  established  later,  we  have  felt  warranted  in  giving  to 
the  subject  this  extra  space. 

iMwvc  tir^,.,-,v-c       Following  the  lead  of  the  University  of  Mich- 

JOHNS  HOI'KINS  ^  ^ 

UNIVERSITY,     igan,    Johns    Hopkins   University    for   a   short 
DEPARTMENT    tjme  ofifered  courses  in  psychology  and  educa- 

OF  EDUCATION     .  • 

tion. 

In  1S81-82  G.  Stanley  Hall,  Ph.  D.,  was  called  as  lecturer 
in  Psv.^hology.  Two  years  later  (1883-84)  he  was  made 
proi^.  >r  of  Psychology  and  Pedagogics,  but  aside  from  the 
university  announcement  that  instruction  was  provided  in 
Pedagogics,  there  is  no  further  mention  of  the  work  until  the 
year  1884-85.  It  was  then  stated  under  the  graduate 
courses  in  Psychology  and  Education  that  "  Lectures  are 
also  given  during  the  first  year  on  the  History  of  Educa- 
tion, including  the  ancient  and  modern  theories,  the  develop- 
ment of  ancient  and  modern  school  systems,  learned  soci- 
eties, technical  schools,  methods  in  each  department,  school 
legislation  in  different  countries,  etc."  '  It  is  further  stated 
that,  "  The  second  year  includes  short  and  special  courses 
of  lectures  on  select  topics,  and  the  prosecution  of  original 
studies  according  to  a  systematic  plan  announced  at  the  be- 
ginning of  each  year.  Readings  and  discussions  will  be 
encouraged,  with  a  secondary  view  to  the  educational  sig- 
nificance of  such  work."* 

The  following  year  (1885-86)  the  work  of  the  department 
is  described  as  follows:  "The  Educational  Course  includes 
one  year  devoted  to  the  history  of  education,  beginning 
with  Greece  and  making  connection  with  Course  I  (Histor- 
ical Course  in  Psychology),  so  that  the  two  in  a  measure 
supplement  each  other.  The  second  year  is  devoted  to 
present  educational  problems,  including  legislation,  admin- 
istration,   technology,    defectives,    and    the   applications    of 

•  Annual  Report,  18S4-85,  p.  97.  *  Ibid.,  p.  98. 


Il6  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  \\\6 

ethical  and  psychological  principles  to  educational  questions, 
etc.  A  descriptive  bibliography  just  issued  will  serve  in  a 
measure  as  a  syllabus  of  this  course,  which  is  designed  not 
only  for  those  intending  to  devote  themselves  to  school 
supervision,  but  for  those  in  all  departments  intending  to 
teach  specialties  in  colleges,  in  technical  or  high  schools."' 
For  the  next  year  Dr.  Hall  had  planned  for  a  triennial 
course  in  education  covering  the  three  years  of  graduate 
study.  The  lectures  of  the  first  year  being  historical,  those 
of  the  second,  devoted  to  problems  of  primary  and  inter- 
mediate education,  and  those  of  the  third,  to  special  chapters 
in  the  field  of  higher  education.  But  he  says:  "  This  Course 
does  not  lead  to  a  degree.  Those  who  desire  to  study  edu- 
cation professionally,  are  advised  to  give  their  energy  to 
psychology  which  is  its  chief  scientific  basis,  pedagogy  being 
a  field  of  applied  psychology."*  Dr.  Hall,  however,  resigned 
in  1886,  to  accept  the  Presidency  of  Clark  University,  Wor- 
cester, Mass.  The  department  of  Psychology  and  Peda- 
gogics in  Johns  Hopkins  University  was  then  discontinued 
and  has  not  since  been  reorganized.  This  was  a  case  in 
which  the  department  and  courses  were  created  to  fit 
the  man. 

What  the  department  of  psychology  and  ped- 
AiM  OF  THE  i>E-g  m\^\i\.  have  become  had  Dr.  G.  Stanley 

PARTMENT  t>     to-'  &  J 

Hall  remained  at  its  head  can  only  be  conject- 
ured. No  direct  statement  outlining  the  aim  of  the  work  in 
pedagogics  seems  to  have  been  made ;  but  judging  from  the 
nature  of  the  courses  as  indicated  in  the  catalogues  one 
would  infer  that  the  work  was  undertaken  primarily  for  the 
sake  of  culture  and  because  the  field  offered  many  new  and 
practical  problems  for  investigation.  It  was  an  outcropping 
of  the  student  spirit,  probably  not  so  much  with  the  thought 
of  training  young  men  for  teaching,  as  that  of  teaching  them 

'  Catalogue  of  1883-86,  p.  102.  *  Annual  Catalo^e,  1887-88,  p.  88. 


I  I  7]  JIISTOK  Y  OF  SPECIAL  MO  FEME  XT  I  I  7 

how  to  Study,  which  after  all  is  the  first  step  toward  real 
teaching.  The  courses  in  education  were  offered  as  graduate 
studies,  which  placed  them  beyond  the  reach  of  elementary 
teachers  as  well  as  of  most  high  school  teachers. 

Dr.  Hall  laid  chief  stress  upon  psychology,  a  subject  which 
he  holds  to  be  the  true  scientific  basis  of  pedagogy.  The 
courses  in  education  were  inserted  between  courses  in 
psychology,  philosophy,  logic  and  ethics ;  all  as  the  work 
of  a  single  professor. 

Aside  from  the  courses  in  the  history  of  education,  the 
work  was  devoted  principally  to  the  study  of  special  prob- 
lems, such  as  defectives,  crim.inology,  school  legislation, 
administration,  etc.  For  advanced  students  who  were  pro- 
perly prepared  for  investigation  and  research  the  lectures 
must  have  proved  exceedingly  interesting  and  beneficial. 

CORNELL  UNI-        ^"  1 886  Comell  University  established  a  de- 
vERsiTY,  DE-    partment  of  education  in  connection  with  the 
PARTMENT  OF   Sagc    School    of    Philosophy,    and    appointed 
S.  R.  Williams,  Ph.  D.,  Professor  of  the  Science 
and  Art  of  Teaching.     Prior  to  his  appointment  to  the  de- 
partment of  education  Dr.  Williams  had  been  professor  of 
"  General  and  Economic  Geology"  in  Cornell  University. 
DTT.c^KTc  r•r^T.        The  report  of  the  committee  recommending 

K.£ASONS    FOR  *■  ^ 

ESTABLISHING  thc  establishment  of  the  department  is  in  part 
THE  DE-  as  follows:  ''We  are  of  the  opinion  that  great 
PARTMENT  gervicc  would  be  rendered  to  the  university  by 
the  establishment  of  a  chair  of  the  science  and  art  of  teach- 
ing. As  this  is  in  some  sense  a  state  as  well  as  a  national 
university,  it  seems  peculiarly  desirable  that  it  should  exert 
a  wholesome  and  elevating  influence  upon  all  the  grades  of 
schools  with  which  it  comes  in  contact.  Such  an  influence 
would  be  greatly  strengthened  by  the  establishment  of  the 
professorship  contemplated.     There  are,  moreover,  a  very 


1 1 8  TRAINING  OF  SECOND  A  R  Y  TEA  CHERS  [  1 1  g 

considerable  number  of  young  men  and  young  women  in  the 
University  who  desire  to  fit  themselves  for  the  career  of  a 
teacher," '  The  above  statement  showing  the  reasons  for 
establishing  the  department,  is  supplemented  by  the  follow- 
ing expression  of  the  aim  and  nature  of  the  department 
repeated  for  many  years  in  the  annual  register:  "Believing 
that  a  need  exists  for  more  thoroughly  equipped  teachers  in 
our  higher  educational  institutions,  the  University  has  made 
provisions  for  supplying  this  want,  both  by  the  establishment 
of  a  professorship  of  the  science  and  art  of  teaching,  and  by 
such  additions  to  some  of  the  chief  lines  of  university  study 
as  seem  best  adapted  to  fit  students  to  teach  them  success- 
fully. The  lectures  of  the  Professor  of  Teaching  include 
courses  on  the  general  theory  of  education,  its  aim,  its  psy- 
chological conditions,  and  its  means ;  on  the  nature  and 
methods  of  instruction  fitted  for  different  ages  and  destina- 
tions;  on  the  organization  and  management  of  schools,  in- 
cluding an  account  of  the  modes  of  organization  which  pre- 
vail in  our  own  and  other  countries,  with  their  tendencies 
and  results;  and  on  the  history  of  education,  with  a  discus- 
sion of  the  theories  of  famous  writers  on  education.  The 
lectures  are  supplemented  by  conferences  for  the  discussion  of 
educational  topics,  for  the  special  investigation  of  important 
educational  questions,  and  for  reports  on  visits  to  schools." 
"  Arrangements  have  also  been  made  in  several  depart- 
ments of  the  University,  by  special  classes  and  by  seminaries, 
to  give  extended  instruction  to  those  who  intend  to  teach, 
in  the  best  methods  of  presenting  the  branches  of  study  to 
which  these  departments  are  devoted." ' 

The  arrangement  and  nature  of  the  courses, 
NATURE  OF  THE  ^yj^jjg  not  SO  extcnsivc,  remind  one  of  the  work 

WORK 

offered    in    the    University    of    Michigan,     In 

*  University  Records,  1886, 

'  University  Register,  1887-88,  pp.  59,  60, 


1 1  g  ]  HIS  TOR  Y  OF  SPR  CIA  L  MO  VEMENT  i  \  g 

fact  Professor  Williams  says:  "The  courses  that  have  been 
offered  during  the  past  two  years,  were  arranged  after  a  care- 
ful study  of  the  work  done  in  institutions  similar  to  our  own, 
viz.,  in  the  Universities  of  Michigan  and  Iowa,  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Edinburgh,  and  in  the  teachers*  syndicate  of  Cana- 
bridge  University."' 

The  eight  courses  arranged  for  the  first  year,  each  cover*- 
ing  a  single  term  (one-third  of  the  school  year),  were,  fofi 
the  second  and  following  years,  combined  into  three  courses 
each  continuing  throughout  the  year.  The  nature  of  these 
courses  is  quite  fully  indicated  in  the  quotation  given  above. 
Course  i,  occupying  three  hours  per  week  throughout  the 
year,  was  a  lecture  course  on  the  theory  and  practice  o4 
Education,  of  a  very  general  nature ;  characterized  as  fol- 
lows:  "I.  The  science  of  education.  Philosophic  basis; 
aims;  methods;  means.  School  instruction:  application 
of  methods  to  various  branches ;  recitations ;  art  of  ques^ 
tioning  and  examining;  illustration  and  exposition.  Organ' 
ization  and  management  of  schools :  classification;  courses 
of  study;  supervision;  school  buildings  and  appliances; 
school  hygiene ;  school  economy,  etc."  Course  2  was  a 
seminary  course  of  one  hour  per  week,  devoted  to  discus- 
sions and  essays  on  topics  connected  with  Course  i.  Course  3 
was  a  two-hour  course  on  the  "  History  of  education  m 
various  ages  and  countries.  Comparative  education ;  theo- 
ries of  writers  on  education,  eminent  educators,  etc.,"  given 
the  last  two  terms  of  the  year. 

Beginning  with  the  academic  year  1888-89,  there  was  a 
fourth  course  of  one-hour  added,  entitled,  "pedagogic  Sem- 
inary devoted  to  a  study  of  Waltz's  Allgemeine  Padagogik," 
which  was  changed  in  1891-92  to  read  "Waltz's  Allemeine 
Paedagogik,"  or  "  Clemens  Nohl's  Padagogik  fiif  hohere  Lehr- 
anstalten."     This  course,  though  intended  only  for  advanced 

*  Annual  Report  of  the  President  of  Cornell  University  for  i88j~88,  p.  72. 


120  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [j20 

Students,  did  not  prove  popular,  and  had  to  be  omitted  on 
different  occasions  for  want  of  students. 

In  1893-94  Course  One  was  divided  into  two  courses: 
"  The  Institutes  of  Education,"  in  which  education  was 
treated  "  as  to  its  aims,  its  principles  and  its  means  from  the 
standpoint  of  the  physical,  intellectual  and  moral  nature  of 
man,"  a  three-hour  lecture  course  continuing  through  the 
year,  and  a  one-hour  course  on  school  supervision,  offered 
during  the  third  term  of  the  year.  These  courses  continued 
with  but  little  modification  until  1898-99,  when  Dr.  Williams 
became  professor  emeritus,  and  Chas.  DeGarmo,  Ph.  D., 
President  of  Swarthmore  College,  was  appointed  professor 
of  the  science  and  art  of  education. 

Dr.  DeGarmo  continued  the  course  in  the  history  of  edu- 
cation, established  a  two- hour  seminary  course  in  the  science 
and  art  of  education,  a  three-hour  course  in  psychologic 
foundations  of  education,  and  arranged  a  one-hour  lecture 
course  on  the  teaching  of  high  school  subjects  given  by  the 
professors  of  the  different  departments  having  these  subjects 
in  charge.  These  courses  continue  in  about  the  same  form 
to-day. 

teachers'  University  Teachers'  Certificates  were  author- 

cESTiFicATEs  jzed  soon  after  the  establishment  of  the  depart- 
ment, on  the  following  conditions :  "Certificates  of  scholarly 
fitness  to  teach  will,  upon  application  on  or  before  June  ist, 
be  given  to  such  graduates  of  the  academic  department  as 
have  successfully  pursued  the  first  course  on  the  science  and 
art  of  teaching,  or  that  portion  of  it  which  relates  to  the  gen- 
eral theory  of  education,  together  with  the  course  on  the 
history  of  education,  and  have  besides  attained  marked  pro- 
ficiency in  at  least  five  hours  of  advanced  work  for  two  years, 
in  each  subject  for  which  the  teachers'  certificate  is  given,  in 
such  subjects  as  offer  five  or  more  hours  of  such  work." ' 

'  University  Register,  1 899-1900,  p.  57. 


1 2  I  ]  HISTOR  V  OF  SPECIAL  MO  VEMENT  1 2  i 

The  University  Teachers'  Certificate  when  approved  by  the 
state  superintendent  becomes  a  vah'd  life  license  to  teach  in 
the  public  high  schools  of  the  state,  unless  revoked  by  the* 
same  authority  for  cause. 

Besides  the  instruction  that  is  given  by  the  departments 
of  philosophy  and  of  education  for  the  professional  training 
of  teachers,  several  other  departments  in  the  academic  col- 
lege, Greek,  Latin  and  English,  offer  "teachers'  training 
courses"  in  the  subjects  with  which  they  are  especially  con- 
cerned. The  instruction  from  the  beginning  has  been  with 
the  thought  of  training  secondary  rather  than  elementary 
teachers. 

No  special  pedagogical  degree  is  offered  and  no  provision 
is  made  for  practice  teaching. 

.  The  Ohio  University,  situated  at  Athens,  es- 

THE  OHIO  ^  ' 

UNIVERSITY,  tablished  a  chair  of  pedagogy  in  1886-87,  ^"^ 
DEPARTMENT  appointed  John  P.  Gordy,  Ph.  D.,  Professor  of 
OF  EDUCATION  Pgy^hology  and  Pedagogics.  For  several  years 
previous  there  had  been  normal  classes  formed^  in  connec 
tion  with  the  spring  and  fall  terms,  for  the  benefit  of  country 
teachers.  The  normal  instruction  was  carried  on  in  the  pre- 
paratory department,  and  with  the  exception  of  lectures  on 
the  "  principles  and  duties  of  school  work,"  was  purely 
academic. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  department,  psychology,  ethics 
and  philosophy  seem  to  have  been  considered  subordinate 
to  pedagogy.  At  least  it  is  stated :  "  For  the  present  psy- 
chology, ethics  and  the  history  of  philosophy  will  be  re- 
garded as  belonging  to  this  department  (pedagogics)."' 

In  1891-92,  Professor  Gordy's  title  was  changed  to  Pro- 
fessor of  Philosophy  and  Pedagogics,  and  the  department 
instead  of  "Pedagogics"  was  called  the  "Department  of 
Pedagogics  and  Philosophy." 

*  Catalogue  for  1887-88,  p.  27. 


122  TRAINING  OF  SE  CONDA  R  V  TEA  CHERS  [122 

The  pedagogical  instruction  that  was  offered 

NATURE  OF  THE      ..UU'  r^UJ  i.  ^  t    \ 

at  the  beginning  of  the  department  was  as  fol- 

WORK  fc.  t>  r 

lows:  Psychology  (educational),  History  of 
Education,  and  Methods.  These  in  addition  to  the  classical 
course  comprised  what  was  known  as  the  "  Pedagogical 
Course,"  which  led  to  the  degree  of  bachelor  of  Pedagogy 
(B.  Pad.).  The  courses  of  instruction  remain  practically 
the  same  until  1892-93  when  the  following  courses  were 
substituted:  "Education  from  a  National  Standpoint 
(Educa.  Psych.),  Fouillee's,  three  hours  per  week;  History 
of  Education,  Davidson's  Greek  Education,  four  hours  per 
week;  Science  of  Education  (Methods),  Laurie's  Institutes 
of  Education  (time  not  given)  ;  and  Seminary  (City  School 
Systems)  once  every  two  weeks."' 

In  June,  1896,  Professor  Gordy  resigned  to  become  Pro- 
fessor of  Pedagogy  in  the  Ohio  State  University  at  Colum- 
bus, and  Arthur  Allin,  Ph.  D.,was  appointed  to  the  vacancy 
in  the  Ohio  University  as  professor  of  Psychology  and  Ped- 
agogy, and  Clyde  Brown,  Ph.  B.,  was  made  instructor  in 
Philosophy  and  Pedagogy.  Dr.  Allin  arranged  the  following 
courses  of  instruction:  I,  Pedagogical  values  (Spencer's 
Education)  ;  II,  History  of  Education;  III,  Science  of  Edu- 
cation; IV,  Educational  Systems;  and  V,  Seminary  (City- 
school  systems).  The  following  year  (1897-98)  Professor 
Allin  resigned  to  accept  a  similar  position  in  the  University 
of  Colorado,  and  Mr.  Brown  was  made  associate  Professor 
of  Pedagogy.  A  year  later  (1898-99)  he  became  Professor 
of  Philosophy  and  Pedagogy,  the  title  of  the  department 
and  the  courses  of  instruction  continuing  the  same. 

From    the    beginning    to    the    close  of    Dr. 

Gordy's  administration  the  following  statement 

DEPARTMENT  ^  ^ 

is  made  as  to  the  purpose  of  the  department: 
'*  It  is  the  aim  of  this  department  to  prepare  students  for  the 

'  Catalogue  for  i8ga-g3,  p.  49. 


123]  HISTORY  OF  SPECIAL  MOVEMENT  123 

profession  of  teaching.  Such  preparation  requires  (i)  a 
vivid  conception  of  the  true  end  of  education;  (2)  a  knowl- 
edge of,  and  practical  acquaintance  with,  the  right  method 
to  be  used  in  attaining  that  end;  (3)  a  knowledge  of  the 
principles  upon  which  those  methods  are  based;  (4)  a  true 
conception  of  educational  values;  (5)  a  broad  range  of 
scholarship  and  general  culture.  Every  opportunity  is  im- 
proved to  impress  upon  students  the  fact  that  the  object  of 
education  is  not  primarily  the  communication  of  knowledge, 
but  the  training  of  faculty,  and  these  faculties  not  merely  or 
chiefly  the  intellectual,  but  the  emotive,  the  volitional,  and 
the  moral."' 

The   Ohio   University,  considered   above,  is 

THE  OHIO  STATE  ,  ,  ,  ... 

UNIVERSITY  ^"^  °^  ^"^  oldest  of  state  mstitutions,  datmg 
back  to  1 801.  It  received  as  an  endowment 
the  two  townships,  set  aside  by  an  act  of  the  general  gov- 
ernment in  1787,  for  the  support  of  a  university.  Since 
then  it  has  received  but  little  additional  support  from  the 
state,  and  is  maintained  principally  through  its  endowment 
and  tuition  fees. 

The  Ohio  State  University  was  opened  first  in  1873  as  the 
State  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College,  receiving  for  an 
endowment  the  large  appropriation  of  land  made  by  the  gen- 
eral government  in  1862  for  the  "endowment,  support  and 
maintenance "  of  state  agricultural  colleges.  Five  years 
later,  by  an  act  of  the  state  legislature,  the  institution  was 
enlarged,  and  the  name  changed  to  that  of  "The  Ohio  State 
University."  Since  that  time  the  University  has  received 
many  liberal  appropriations  from  the  state  and  greatly  over- 
shadows the  other  state  schools. 

In  1896-97,  the  Ohio  State  University  estab- 

DEPARTMENT 

OF  PEDAGOGY    ^'shcd  a  "  Department  of  Pedagogy,"  and  ap- 
pointed Dr.  J.  P.  Gordy  professor   in  charge. 
»  Catalogue  for  1887-88,  p.  26. 


1 2  4  TEA  rWING  OF  SECOXDA  R  Y  TEA  CHERS  ["124 

Two  years  later  (1898-99),  the  name  of  the  department  was 
changed  to  that  of  the  "  Department  of  Education,"  and  Dr. 
Gordy's  title  was  changed  to  read  "  Professor  of  Education." 
As  at  first  organized,  the  work  of  the  department  did  not 
differ  materially  from  that  above  described  in  the  Ohio  Uni- 
versity, being  probably  a  little  more  advanced  and  more 
theoretical.  It  opened  with  the  following  courses  of  instruc- 
tion:  "  Elementary  and  Advanced  Courses  in  Educational 
Psychology ;  History  of  Education  ;  Herbartian  Pedagogy  ; 
Philosophy  of  Education  (Rosenkranz's)  ;  Institutes  of  Ed- 
ucation (Laurie's).  At  the  present  time  ( 1901),  the  courses 
of  instruction  are  as  follows:  i.  Educational  Psychology, 
three  times  a  week,  three  terms ;  2.  Child  Study,  four  times 
a  week,  three  terms;  3.  History  of  Education,  four  times  a 
week,  three  terms ;  4.  Methods  of  Research,  twice  a  week, 
three  terms;  5.  Science  of  Education,  four  times  a  week, 
three  terms;  6.  Modern  Educational  Systems,  twice  a  week, 
three  terms;  7.  A  Study  of  Scientific  Method,  twice  a  week, 
three  terms ;  8.  The  Recitation,  twice  a  week,  three  terms ; 
9.  Seminar,  twice  a  week,  three  terms." 

Regarding  the  aim  in  the  course  in  education 

AIM  OF  THE  ,  , 

DEPARTMENT  ^^  is  Said  \  "  Thc  postulate  that  underlies  the 
course  in  education  is,  that  there  are  two  lines 
along  which  the  intending  teacher— with  a  view  to  his  pro- 
fessional interest — should  study:  (i)  the  subject  he  teaches, 
and  (2)  the  history  and  science  of  education  and  educational 
psychology.  The  first  point  will  probably  not  be  challenged 
by  any  intelligent  person.  No  one  now  supposes  that  a 
teacher  can  teach  what  he  does  not  know. 

"But  there  are  still  many  thoughtful  people  who  suppose 
that  teachers  are  born,  not  made ;  that  if  a  man  has  the 
natural  qualifications  of  a  teacher  he  can  teach,  otherwise 
not,  and  that  is  the  end  of  it.  The  principle  underlying  this 
course  takes  sharp  issue  with  this  opinion.     It  assumes  that 


125]  HISTORY  OF  SPECIAL  MOVEMENT  125 

the  intending  teacher  may  by  study  acquire  clearer  ideas  of 
the  end  of  education,  and  of  sound  educational  methods.  It 
assumes  that  the  practitioner  of  the  art  of  education  may, 
like  the  practitioners  of  other  arts,  do  something  to  put  hlm- 
seif  in  a  position  in  which  he  will  be  able  to  do  his  work 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  experience  of  the  best  teachers  of 
the  world."  ^ 

/'T  AT>,^,TMr  Clark    University,   as   opened   in    1889,   was 

CLARtC  UNI* 

vERsiTv,  DE-  limited  to  five  departments :  Mathematics, 
PARTMENT  OF    Physics,  Chcmlstry,  Biology  and   Psychology. 

EDUCATION  p^^  ^j^g  opening  of  the  Chicago  University  a 
few  years  later  the  chemistry  professors  were  called  in  a 
body  to  the  new  institution,  and  Clark  University  has  since 
confined  its  strength  to  the  four  remaining  departments,  as 
enumerated  above.  This  limited  scope  of  instruction  should 
be  kept  in  mind  when  considering  the  nature  of  the  work 
ofifered  for  the  professional  training  of  teachers. 

Clark  University,  properly  speaking,  is  distinctly  a  Grad- 
uate School  of  somewhat  limited  scope.'  The  main  object 
for  which  it  was  established  was  one  of  research  and  investi- 
gation— a  spirit  to  which  it  has  ever  remained  true. 

Dr.  G.  Stanley  Hall  was  called  from  the  chair  of  psychol- 
ogy and  pedagogics  in  Johns  Hopkins  University  to  the 
Presidency  early  in  1888,  but  occupied  the  year  in  travel  and 
study  abroad.  On  his  return  President  Hall  assumed  the 
duties  of  Professor  of  Psychology  and  Education,  a  position 
which  he  still  retains.  In  1889,  Dr.  W.  H.  Burnham  was 
appointed  Docent  in  Pedagogy  and  sent  to  Europe  to  study 
educational  institutions  and  methods. 

*  University  Catalogue  for  igoi-02. 

'  Since  the  death  of  the  founder  of  Clark  University,  Hon.  Jonas  G.  Clark 
(19CO),  owing  to  a  desire  as  expressed  in  his  will,  an  undergraduate  department 
or  college  has  been  established  and  organized  (1902)  with  Carroll  D.  Wright  as 
president. 


126  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  \\2^ 


NATURE  OF 


The  first  courses  in  education  were  offered 
in  1890-91,  and  consisted  of  two  lectures,  each 

THE  WORK 

one  hour  per  week;  the  one  by  Dr.  Burnham 
on  "  Pedagogical  principles,  topics  in  the  history  of  educa- 
tion, and  present  problems  in  higher  and  lower  education  in 
this  country  and  in  Europe,"  the  other  by  Dr.  Hall  upon 
"  Special  institutions  and  educational  systems."  From  this 
time  forth  Dr.  Hall  has  devoted  at  least  one  hour  per  week 
to  lectures  on  special  problems  of  education.  These  lectures, 
like  the  related  ones  given  by  Dr.  Hall  on  psychology, 
usually  come  fresh  from  the  laboratory  and  are  always 
stimulating  and  helpful. 

The  following  year  (i 891-2)  Dr.  Burnham  offered  a  one- 
hour  lecture  course  on  "  School  Hygiene  and  Physical 
Education,"  treating  the  subject  comparatively  and  from  the 
standpoint  of  the  hj'giene  of  the  nervous  system.  This  was 
followed  in  turn,  by  a  course  on  the  psychology  of  reading, 
and  the  methods  of  teaching  reading,  mathematics,  and 
geography,  treated  historically  and  comparatively.  During 
these  years  the  educational  seminary  was  established,  a 
weekly  meeting  of  students  devoted  to  the  study  and  dis- 
cussion of  special  problems  of  research  in  education.  Most 
of  the  articles  found  in  the  "  Pedagogical  Seminary,"  pub- 
lished at  Clark  University,  are  the  results  of  studies  which 
have  been  reported  and  discussed  first  in  this  educational 
seminary  conducted  by  Dr.  Burnham. 

In  1892-93  Dr.  Burnham  became  instructor,  and  in 
1900-01  assistant  professor  of  pedagogy.  From  the  first 
he  has  devoted  about  two  hours  per  week  to  lectures  on 
special  topics  of  education,  which  are  nearly  always  the 
immediate  results  of  investigations  that  later  find  currency 
in  educational  publications.  Looked  at  from  the  standpoint 
of  the  last  ten  years  these  lectures  have  covered  a  wide 
range,   but    their  scope  in  any  one  year  has  been    unusu- 


127]  HISTORY  OF  SPECIAL  MOVEMENT  i2f 

ally  limited.  Dr.  Hall's  work  in  psychology  (philosophy) 
is  generally  planned  on  a  three-year  basis,  courses  re- 
peating themselves  triennially,  but  if  any  such  sequence 
is  arranged  for  the  department  of  pedagogy  the  writer 
has  failed  to  discover  it.  A  few  courses  have  been  re- 
peated in  the  past  ten  years  but  without  any  seeming 
regularity.  The  principal  topics  that  have  been  considered 
during  these  years  are  as  follows:  i.  Child  Study,  Educa- 
tional Psychology,  School  Hygiene;  2.  Principles  of  Edu- 
cation, History  of  Education  and  Reforms,  Methods,  devices, 
apparatus;  3.  Organization  of  Schools  in  Dififerent  Coun- 
tries, Typical  Schools  and  Special  Foundations,  Motor  Edu- 
cation, including  manual  training  and  physical  education, 
Moral  Education,  Ideals.  No  observation  and  practice- 
teaching  is  provided,  and  the  work  as  planned  is  intended 
only  for  advanced  students  who  are  interested  in,  and  capable 
of  pursuing  with  profit,  original  problems  of  research  and 
investigation. 

The  department  of  pedagogy  still  continues,  as  established 
in  1893,  a  sub-department  of  psychology.  In  the  treatment 
of  the  subject  a  close  relation  is  maintained  between  psy- 
chology and  anthropology  on  the  one  hand  and  pedagogy 
on  the  other,  the  former  furnishing  the  principles  and  facts 
upon  which  the  latter  is  based.  Pedagogy  may  be  taken  as 
a  minor,  but  not  as  a  major,  for  the  degree  of  Doctor  of 
Philosophy.  The  instruction  has  been  devoted  more  to  the 
scientific  and  theoretical  phases  of  the  subject  than  to  the 
practical  and  applied. 

"  The  aim  of  the  department  is  twofold  :  first, 
to  give  instruction  and   training  to  those  who 

DEPARTMENT  °  ° 

are  preparing  to  be  professors  of  pedagogy, 
superintendents,  or  teachers  in  higher  institutions ;  second, 
to  make  scientific  contributions  to  education.  These  two 
ends  are  so  closely  related  that  the  pursuit  of  one  involves 
much  of  the  work  required  for  the  other  also." 


128  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TFACHERS  \\2% 

"Assuming  that  a  student  has  adequate  preparation,  three 
things  are  essential  for  higher  pedagogical  training;  first,  a 
general  knowledge  of  the  organization  of  education  in  differ- 
ent countries  and  of  literature  in  the  field  of  education,  in- 
cluding the  history  of  education,  psychology  in  its  relation 
to  education,  and  school  hygiene;  second,  actual  experience 
in  teaching,  together  with  observation  of  good  teaching, 
and  some  direct  study  of  educational  institutions  of  dififerent 
character  and  grade;  third,  some  experience  in  independent 
research,  involving  not  only  the  thorough  study  of  all 
authorities  upon  a  subject,  and  of  all  work  that  has  been 
done  in  the  same  field  in  different  countries,  but  also  original 
investigation  leading  to  a  scientific  contribution." 

"  In  this  University  the  study  of  educational  literature,  by 
lectures  and  independent  reading,  and  the  investigation  of 
some  problem,  are  usually  carried  on  simultaneously;  but 
practical  experience  in  teaching  must  be  gained  before  or 
after  the  University  course."  "  But,  while  at  present  the 
University  has  no  practice  school,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  most 
of  those  who  have  been  members  of  the  educational  depart- 
ment have  had  experience  in  teaching  before  coming  to  the 
University;  and  the  lack  of  direct  connection  with  the 
schools  is  in  part  supplied  by  visits  to  educational  insti- 
tutions."' 

One  who  is  unfamiliar  with  the  work  at  Clark  University 
may  be  surprised  at  the  few  hours  per  week  devoted  to  lec- 
tures, but  the  student  who  is  engaged  in  an  investigation  of 
some  new  problem,  is  not  desirous  of  dropping  his  work 
every  few  hours  to  listen  to  lectures  on  some  unrelated  topic, 
the  remembrance  of  which  is  made  necessary  as  preparation 
for  a  final  examination.  Such  instruction  may  be  weak  when 
considered  as  a  formative  process,  but  it  certainly  furnishes 
the    best     means     for     individual     development.      Besides, 

*Dr.  Burnham,  in  Clark  University  Decennial  Celebration,  1898-99,  pp.  162-3. 


1 29]  HISTOR  Y  OF  SPECIAL  MO  VEMEXT  i  29 

the  few  lectures  that  are  offered  by  the  instructors  are  usually 
the  results  of  the  original  investigations  of  the  instructors, 
in  progress  at  the  time,  and  cover  a  vital  phase  of  the  topic 
or  topics  under  investigation  by  the  students.  Such  work 
would  hardly  be  suitable  for  undergraduate  students,  but  for 
graduates  who  have  naturally  passed  the  formative  period  it 
seems  to  the  writer  to  be  most  appropriate. 

As  early  as  1871,  there  were  special  courses 
for  teachers  established  in  connection  with  the 

VERSITY,  DE- 
PARTMENT OF   Lawrence    Scientific    School.      There    was    no 

EDUCATION,     examination    required    for    admission    to    the 

SPECIAL       ^^  Tcachcrs'  Course,"  which  was  intended  espec- 

COURSES   FOR      .    ,,         ,  ,  ,       ,  . 

TEACHERS,  '^^v  'OJ*  tcachcrs  of  the  sciences,  or  students 
looking  toward  that  profession. 

Many  similar  courses  have  been  offered  during  the  sum- 
mer sessions  for  the  benefit  of  teachers  who  could  not  attend 
during  the  school  year.  In  fact,  the  summer  courses  at 
Harvard  have  always  been  adapted,  in  the  main,  "  to  the 
needs  of  teachers  and  to  those  who  intend  to  be  teachers." 
The  instruction  has  been  for  the  most  part  academic,  but 
some  attention  has  been  given  to  the  best  methods  of  teach- 
ing the  subjects  in  question. 

The  catalogue  for  1880,  p.  147,  makes  mention  of  these 
courses  as  follows :  "  The  school  also  offers  facilities  to 
teachers,  and  to  persons  preparing  to  be  teachers,  who  de- 
sire to  qualify  themselves  in  the  modern  methods  of  teaching 
science  by  observation  and  experiment.  A  one-year's  course 
of  study,  adapted  to  this  purpose,  may  be  selected  from  the 
elements  of  Natural  History,  Chemistry  and  Physics,  includ- 
ing any  of  the  following  subjects:  Physical  Geography  and 
Elementary  Geology ;  General  Chemistry  and  Quantitative 
Analysis;  Mineralogy;  Physics;  Botany;  Comparative  An- 
atomy and  Physiology  ;  Zoology. 


130  TRAINING   OF  SECOADARY  TEACHERS  [^130 

"This  Course  is  flexible  and  comprehensive;  the  instruc- 
tion is  mainly  given  in  the  laboratories  and  museums  of  the 
University,  and  is  of  the  most  practical  character,  every 
student  being  taught  to  make  experiments  and  study 
specimens." 

"  Special  Courses  in  Botany,  Chemistry  and  Geology  are 
given  during  the  vacation  to  teachers  and  others  who  are 
unable  to  attend  during  term  time."  ' 

Special  Courses  for  teachers,  not  only  in  the  Scientific 
School  but  in  the  Literary  Department  as  well,  have  been 
an  important  feature  of  the  university  instruction  ever  since. 
To  these  courses  have  since  been  added  instruction  in  psy- 
chology and  pedagogy.  In  the  catalogue  of  1897-98,  under 
the  head  ''Science  for  Teachers,"  is  found  the  following: 
*'  This  programme  is  intended  for  men  wiio  wish  to  qualify 
themselves  to  teach  science  in  secondary  schools,  or  to  be- 
come supervisors  of  science  teaching  in  elementar}'  schools. 
It  prescribes  courses  in  Mathematics,  Physics,  Chemistry, 
Botany,  Zoology,  Geology  and  Physical  Geography,  Psy- 
chology, the  General  Principles  of  Education,  the  History  of 
Education,  the  Organization  and  Management  of  Schools  and 
Classes,  and  Methods  of  teaching  Science  in  Elementary  and 
Secondary  Schools,  and  offers  a  voluntary  summer  course  in 
Physical  Training."  "^  This  Course  covers  four  years  and 
leads  to  "  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Science  in  Science  for 
Teachers." 

In  1891-92  Paul  H.  Hanus,  B.  S.,  was  appointed  "Assist- 
ant Professor  in  the  History  and  the  Art  of  Teaching,"  and 
the  new  department  of  education  was  established,  and  still 
remains,  as  a  sub-department  of  philosophy. 

During  the  first  year  Professor  Hanus  offered 

NATURE  OF     ^]^j.gg  courscs  :   a  two-hour  course  on  "  The  His- 

THE  WORK 

tory  of  Teaching  and  of  Educational  Theories  ;" 

*  Catalogue  for  1880-81,  p.  148.  *  Catalogue  for  iSgj-gS,  p.  418. 


J  3  I  ]  HIS  rOR  Y  OF  SPE CIA L  MO  YEMEN T  131 

a  one  hour  course  on  "  The  Theory  of  Teaching,  the 
psychological  basis  of  methods,  Critical  examination  of 
educational  doctrines,"  and  a  two-hour  course  on  "  The  Art 
of  Teaching,  school-room  practice,  management,  super- 
vision, government  and  organization  of  public  schools  and 
academies,  including  visits  to  the  public  schools  of  Cam- 
bridge and  vicinity." 

The  following  year  the  department  offered  four  courses  as 
follows:  I.  The  history  of  educational  theories  and  prac- 
tices, two  hours  a  week;  2.  Introduction  to  educational 
theory,  discussion  of  educational  principles,  one  hour  a 
week;  3.  Organization  and  management  of  public  schools 
and  academies,  supervision,  courses  of  study,  and  instruc- 
tion, two  hours  a  week;  and  4.  Pedagogical  seminary,  aims, 
organization,  equipment,  and  methods  of  secondary  educa- 
tion. From  this  time  forward  these  courses  have  remained 
quite  constant. 

Two  years  later  (1894-95)  a  fifth  course  was  given  by  the 
department  on  "  Methods  of  Teaching  Sciences  in  element- 
ary and  secondary  schools,"  one  hour  per  week.  In  the 
year  1896—97  and  following,  this  course  has  alternated  an- 
nually with  a  course  on  "  Methods  of  Teaching  Latin,  Greek, 
English,  German,  French,  and  History,  in  Elementary  and 
Secondary  Schools,"  consisting  of  about  ten  exercises  on 
each  subject.  The  instruction  in  the  courses  on  Methods 
of  Teaching  is  given  by  Professor  Hanus,  college  professors, 
and  teachers  from  nearby  secondary  schools. 

In  the  establishment  of  the  department  of  education, 
"the  corporation  wished  to  make  a  modest  beginning  of 
systematic  instruction  in  the  history  and  art  of  teaching." 
The  instruction  is  planned  for  juniors,  seniors,  and  grad- 
uates. It  does  not  cover  a  wide  scope,  but  it  is  intended 
to  be  thoroughly  practical  and  adapted  to  the  immediate 
professional    requirements    of    secondary    teachers.       It    is 


I  3  2  TRAINING^  OF  SECOND AR  V  TEA  CHERS  [132 

probable  that  the  department  will  soon  be  enlarged  and 
made  co-ordinate  with  philosophy  and  other  collegiate  de- 
partments. The  popularity  of  Harvard  University  is  due  in 
large  part  to  its  manifest  interest  in  the  professional  training 
of  teachers. 

Instead  of  a  mere  department  of  education, 

COLUMBIA  UNI-  U'        TT     •  U       U  ..  T^  I,  r     W 

vERsiTY  DE-    Columbia  University  has  "leachers   College 
PARTMENT  OF  whlch  is  thc   most   richly  endowed  and  thor- 

EDucATioN  oughly  equipped  School  of  Education  in  the 
country.  The  purposes  of  this  paper  will  permit  only  the 
briefest  outline  of  its  history. 

In  1889-90,  Dr.  Nicholas  Murray  Butler  was  promoted 
from  the  position  of  Tutor  in  Philosophy  to  that  of  "Adjunct 
Professor  of  Philosophy  and  Lecturer  on  the  History  and 
Institutes  of  Education."  During  this  year  under  the  title 
of  "Pedagogics"  is  found  the  following  statement:  "Lec- 
tures are  given  to  the  senior  class  one  hour  weekly  through- 
out the  year  on  the  history  of  educational  theories.  This 
course  includes  a  review  and  analysis  of  the  most  celebrated 
writings  on  education  from  Plato's  Republic  to  Herbert 
Spencer's  Education."' 

Dr.  Butler  was  a  young  man  of  energy  and 

NATURE  OF     g^holarly  attainments  and  his  scholastic  career 

THE  WORK  •'  .  .  T-    11 

had  been  a  path  of  rapid  promotion,  rellow 
from  1882  to  1885  he  had  become  Professor  of  philosophy, 
ethics,  and  psychology,  and  lecturer  on  the  history  and  in- 
stitutes of  education,  1890,  and  Dean  of  the  University  Fac- 
ulty of  Philosophy,  1891.='     In  1890-91  he  gave  two  one- hour 

1  Columbia  University  Hand-book  of  Information,  1889-90,  p.  40. 

» Nicholas  Murray  Butler  (Educ),  A.  M.,  1883,  Ph.  D..  1884;  Fellow  Col.  Coll., 
1882-85;  Asst.  in  Philos.,  1885-86;  Acting  Prof,  of  Philos.,  1886-87;  Tutor  in 
Philos.,  1887-89;  Adj.  Prof,  of  Philos.,  18S9-90;  Prof,  of  Philos.,  Ethics  and 
Psychol.,  and  lecturer  on  History  and  Institutes  of  Educ,  1890-;  Prest.  Teachers' 
Coll.,  N.  Y.,  1887-91 ;  Member  Iv.  J.  State  Bd.  of  Educ,  1888-;  Prest.  N.  J.  Coun- 


133]  ^^^^  '^'^^  ^  ^^'  ^^^'-  ^^-^^  MOVEMEN  T  133 

per  week  lecture  courses  in  education,  extending  throughout 
the  year;  one  on  the  science  of  education,  the  other  on  the 
history  of  education.  The  following  year  he  gave  a  one-hour 
course  on  "Systematic  Pedagogics"  and  devoted  two  hours 
weekly  to  a  Pedagogical  Seminary,  In  1892-93  but  one 
course  was  offered  in  education  ;  a  one-hour  per  week  lecture 
course  on  "  The  History  of  Educational  Theories  and  Institu- 
tions." Since  this  time  Dr.  Butler  has  usually  offered  about 
three  lecture  courses  in  education  annually,  each  covering 
one  hour  per  week :  The  History  of  Educational  Theories 
and  Institutions ;  Educational  Seminary;  and  Principles  of 
Education;  including  Psychology  of  Childhood,  Didactics, 
the  Ethical  and  Religious  Elements  in  Education.  The  latter 
is  usually  considered  to  be  one  of  Dr.  Butler's  strongest 
courses.  Of  late  years  this  course  represents  two  hours  per 
week,  the  first  course  mentioned  above  being  omitted. 

Having  early  conceived  the  idea  of  a  great  school  of  edu- 
cation in  connection  with  Columbia  University,  Dr.  Butler 
was  destined,  in  his  organization  and  direction  of  Teachers 
College,  to  do  more  for  practical  education  and  the  profess- 
ional training  of  teachers  than  is  indicated  from  this  brief 
account  of  his  lectures  on  education. 

^,..^„T,„<.  Teachers   College  may  be  said  to  have  origi-  I 

COLLEGE,       nated   in  a  philanthropic  movement  started  in  ; 

COLUMBIA       1880  to  promote  domestic  arts  and   industrial/ 

UNIVERSITY  1  .•  i.U  1     U         •  1  TU     " 

education  among  the  laboring  classes.  Ine 
aim  of  the  movement  was  soon  enlarged  to  include  the  intro- 
duction of  industrial  education — cooking,  sewing,  manual 
training,  etc. — into  the  field  of  general  education,  believing 
thereby  to  strengthen  education  by  giving  new  life  and  mean- 
ing to  the  subjects  already  studied. 

cil  Educ,  1890-91;  Dean  Univ.  Faculty  of  Philos.,  1890-;  Prest.  Paterson,  N.  J., 
Commts.  of  Pub.  Instr.,  1892-93;  Memb.  Nat.  Council  Educa.,  1891-;  Editor 
Educa.  Rev.,  1890-;  Prest.  Nat.  Teachers'  Assn.,  1894. —  Gen.  Cat.  Columbia 
Univ.,  1 754-1 894,  p.  147. 


1 3  4  TRAINING  OF  SEC  ON  DA  R  V  TEA  CHERS  T  j  3  4 

In   order  to   successfully  carry   forward   this 

ORIGINATED  TO  ■'  '' 

SUPPLY  THE  work,  teachers  were  needed,  and  their  proper 
NEED  FOR  training  became  a  matter  of  immediate  neces- 
iNDusTRiAL     gj^         Skilled   mechanics  might  prove  very  in- 

TEACHERS  ,     i   i  •  ,  .     . 

efincient  teachers  of  children  m  manual  trammg, 
especially  when  the  aim  was  not  to  make  craftsmen,  but 
rather,  broad-minded  and  intelligent  citizens.  Neither  could 
the  ordinary  teacher  be  relied  upon  to  carry  forward  this 
work,  since  he  lacked  the  knowledge  and  experience  neces- 
sary to  conduct  and  give  meaning  to  the  manual  training 
laboratory. 

In  order  to  make  provision  for  teachers,  found  necessary 
to  the  success  of  the  movement,  the  Industrial  Education 
Association  (the  name  by  which  the  society  was  now  known) 
established  classes  for  the  training  of  teachers.  Dr.  Butler 
was  appointed  President  of  the  Association  (1886-91)  and 
assigned  the  duty  of  organizing  a  training  college  for  teach- 
ers, which  at  first  was  intended  to  represent  only  one  phase 
of  the  work,  but  which  later  came  to  absorb  the  whole  in- 
terest and  attention  of  the  society. 

As  already  noted,  Dr.  Butler  was  intent  on  having  a  school 
of  education  established  at  Columbia  University.  In  an 
article  on  "The  Beginnings  of  Teachers  College,"  he  says: 
"The  idea  which  led  to  the  foundation  and  development  of 
Teachers  College  was  suggested  by  reading  the  remarkable 
discussions  of  education  as  a  subject  of  university  study  which 
were  contained  in  the  annual  reports  of  President  Barnard 
for  1881  and  1882."' 

The  remark  of  President  Barnard  that  attracted  special 
attention  was  as  follows :  "  Education  is  nowhere  treated  as 
a  science,  and  nowhere  is  there  an  attempt  to  expound  its 
true  philosophy." 

Dr,  Butler  was  of  the  opinion  that  the  time  was  ripe  to 

'  Columbia  University  Quarterly,  1899. 


135]  HISTORY  OF  SPECIAL  MOVEMENT  135 

begin  the  systematic  exposition  of  education  on  a  high  plane 
in  the  University,  but  says:  "  After  a  full  conference  with 
President  Barnard,  the  opinion  was  arrived  at,  chiefly  at  his 
instance,  that  it  would  probably  be  easier  to  build  up  a  teach- 
ers' college  outside  of  the  University,  and  to  bring  it  later 
into  organic  relations  with  the  University,  than  to  undertake 
at  that  time  its  establishment  under  the  control  and  at  the 
expense  of  the  Trustees.  By  a  fortunate  circumstance,  the 
results  of  which  have  been  almost  too  happy  to  attribute 
wholly  to  chance,  the  Industrial  Educational  Association 
served  as  the  occasion  for  the  realization  of  the  ideal  of  a 
teachers'  college  on  a  university  basis."  ' 

Teachers  College,  founded  in  1888,  began  its  organization 
with  the  following  departments :  History  and  Institutes  of 
Education;  Methods  of  Instruction;  Mechanical  Drawing 
and  Woodworking;  Industrial  Arts;  Domestic  Economy; 
Kindeigarten  Methods,  and  Natural  Science.  Tiie  school 
was  backed  by  a  number  of  wealthy  men  and  women  who 
were  deeply  interested  in  its  prosperity,  and  its  growth  was 
consequently  rapid.  The  college  course  as  first  arranged 
occupied  but  two  years  and  led  to  a  teacher's  diploma.  The 
requirements  for  admission  were  scarcely  equal  to  those  of  a 
good  high  school. 

At  first  the  chief  aim  of  the  Industrial  Edu- 

CHANGE  OF  . 

IDEAL  cation  Association  was  the  advancement  of 
domestic  science  and  industrial  training  among 
the  masses,  but  it  was  not  long  before  the  professional  prepar- 
ation of  teachers  for  all  grades  of  public  school-work  became 
the  overshadowing  interest.  Industrial  training,  however, 
continued  to  remain  one  of  the  most  prominent  and  influ- 
ential features  of  the  instruction. 

A  most  fortunate  incident  for  the  future  of  the  College 
occurred  in  1892  when  the  society  found  it  necessary  to  en- 

*  Columbia  University  Quartfrly,  1899. 


1^6  TRAIXING  Of  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [135 

large  its  quarters.  The  committee  appointed  to  look  up  a 
site  selected  twenty  lots  (since  increased  to  thirty  one)  at 
Morningside  Heights,  one  of  the  most  beautiful  and  health- 
ful parts  of  New  York  city.  The  money  for  the  land  was 
obtained  through  Mr.  George  W.  Vanderbilt,  who  purchased 
the  property  at  $100,000  cash  and  donated  it  to  Teachers 
College.  Two  days  later  it  became  known  that  the  old 
Bloomingdale  property,  which  lies  just  across  120th  street 
to  the  south  had  been  purchased  for  the  new  site  of  Colum- 
bia University;  so  without  anticipating  it,  Teachers  College 
was  to  come  under  the  immediate  shadow  of  a  great  uni- 
versity. 

In  its  enlarged  quarters  the  school  was  able  to  greatly 
strengthen  its  curricula  and  to  increase  its  requirements  both 
for  entrance  and  for  graduation. 

In  1 893-94  Teachers  College  became  afifiliated  with  Colum- 
bia University,  certain  courses  of  the  former  being  "accepted 
by  Columbia  as  counting  toward  the  Columbia  College  de- 
grees." ' 

Since  1898  Teachers  College  has  become  incorporated  as 
a  real  part  of  Columbia  University,  exchanging  its  President 
for  a  Dean  but  retaining  its  separate  Board  of  Trustees.  It 
is  now  in  fact  the  "professional  school  of  Columbia  Univer- 
sity for  the  study  of  education  and  the  training  of  teachers." 
The  Teachers  College  of  Columbia  University  has  thus  be- 
come a  great  school  of  education  which,  besides  its  four 
years  of  undergraduate  academic  courses,  and  its  one  to 
three  years  of  graduate  professional  courses,  "  maintains 
two  schools  of  observation  and  practice ;  one,  the  Horace 
Mann  School,  the  other  known  as  the  Experimental  School. 
The  Horace  Mann  School  comprises  three  departments — a 
kindergarten  for  children  of  three  to  six  years  of  age,  an 

'  Historical  Sketch  of  Teachers  College,  by  ex-Pres.  W.  L.  Hervey,  Teachtrs 
College  Record,  i,  33. 


137]  ^^'^ "^'^^  ^  ^^  SPECIAL  MO  VEMENT  1 3  7 

elementary  school  of  eight  grades,  and  a  high  school  of  four 
grades.  The  Experimental  School  consists  of  a  kindergar- 
ten, elementary  school  and  special  classes  in  sewing,  cooking 
and  manual  training.  Each  department  of  the  Horace  Mann 
School  is  in  charge  of  a  principal,  who  ranks  with  directors 
of  departments  in  the  College.  The  Experimental  School 
is  under  the  immediate  supervision  of  the  College  Professor 
of  the  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching.  Both  schools  are 
under  the  general  direction  of  a  Superintendent  of  Schools, 
who  is  also  the  College  Professor  of  School  Administration."' 
The  Horace  Mann  School,  which  maintains  all  grades  from 
the  kindergarten  to  the  college,  is  a  pay  school,  the  other  is 
free.  These  schools  furnish  the  professional  laboratory  of 
Teachers  College. 

The  aim  of  the  School  is  thus  set  forth  in  the 

AIM   OF  TEACH-  i.  1         j  ..  T^U  x    T"  U 

current  calendar:      "  Ihe  purpose  of   leachers 

ERS   COLLEGE  _  ^       f 

College  is  to  afford  opportunity,  both  theoret- 
ical and  practical,  for  the  training  of  teachers  of  both  sexes 
for  kindergartens,  elementary  and  secondary  schools,  of 
principals,  supervisors  and  superintendents  of  schools,  and 
of  specialists  in  various  branches  of  school  work,  including 
normal  schools  and  colleges."  As  at  present  conducted  it 
impresses  one  as  an  unusually  high  grade  normal.  It  is  a 
school  of  instruction  and  of  methods  rather  than  one  of  re- 
search and  investigation,  formative  rather  than  creative.  But 
its  professors,  selected  primarily  because  of  their  teaching 
ability  and  scholastic  attainments,  are  young  and  vigorous, 
and  the  future  may  tell  a  different  story. 

In  its  entirety  Teachers  College  is  ist,  a  large  public  school 
representing  all  grades  from  the  kindergarten  to  the  univer- 
sity; 2d,  a  great  industrial  school;  3d,  an  academic  college, 
though  at  present,  in  order  not  to  duplicate  courses  in 
Columbia  University,  but  few  collegiate  courses  are  ofTered ; 

^  Teachers'  College  Annotmcetneni,  1901-02,  p.  16. 


138  7'-^^  INfNG  OF  SECOND  A  R  /  TEA  CIIERS  [138 

4th,  a  thoroughly  equipped  and  efficient  school  of  education 
for  the  professional  training  of  teachers.  A  list  of  the  pro- 
fessors in  the  professional  school  alone  will  indicate  the 
scope  of  the  work.  They  are  (not  including  the  professors 
of  special  methods)  :  Jas.  E.  Russell,  Ph.  D.,  Dean,  and 
History  of  Education;  Nicholas  Murray  Butler,  LT^.  D., 
Principles  of  Education  ;  Frank  M.  McMurry,  Ph.  D.,  Theory 
and  Practice  of  Teaching;  Samuel  T.  Button,  A.  M.,  School 
Administration ;  Jas.  McK.  Cattell,  Ph.  D.,  Psychology ; 
Paul  Monroe,  Ph.  D.,  History  of  Education ;  Edward  L. 
Thorndike,  Ph.D.,  Genetic  Psychology  (Child  Study); 
Mary  D.  Runyan,  Kindergarten. 

All  degrees  are  conferred  by  Columbia  University,  but 
Teachers  College  ofifers  two  graduate  diplomas:  a  Higher 
Diploma,  won  after  at  least  one  year  of  resident  graduate 
study,  intended  "  to  fit  teachers  of  superior  ability  and 
special  academic  attainments  for  the  work  of  training  teachers 
in  colleges  and  normal  schools,  and  for  positions  in  the 
public-school  service  requiring  a  high  degree  of  professional 
insight  and  technical  skill;"  a  Secondary  Diploma,  likewise 
won  after  at  least  one  year  of  graduate  study,  intended  to 
fit  specialists  for  teaching  in  high  schools  and  colleges.  Be- 
sides the  above  there  are  a  number  of  undergraduate  courses 
leading  to  special  diplomas,  such  as  the  elementary  teachers' 
diploma,  the  kindergarten  diploma,  the  domestic  science 
diploma,  the  manual  training  diploma,  etc. ;  all  self-explan- 
atory, and  nearly  all  based  on  a  four  years  college  course 
with  the  subject  mentioned  in  the  diploma  made  specially 
prominent. 

Many  advantages  are  afforded  for  the  observation  of  actual 
teaching  and  school  administration,  and  practice-teaching  is 
made  an  important  requirement  for  any  and  all  diplomas. 

The  plant  of  Teachers  College  represents  a  capital  of 
nearly  two  million  dollars,  and  the  annual  expenditures  are 


139]  J^^^  TORY  OF  SPE  CIA  L  MO  YEMENI '  139 

more  than  two  hundred  thousand  dollars,  which  is  probably 
more  than  the  entire  expenditures  of  many  of  the  state  uni- 
versities. 

The  New  York  University,  founded  in  1831, 

NEW  YORK 

UNIVERSITY      ^'^^  limited  for  many  years  to  the  single  college 

SCHOOL  OF     of  "arts  and   science."     To  this  college  have 

PEDAGOGY      since  been  added  a  school  of  applied  science,  a 

graduate  school,  a  school  of  pedagogy,  a  school  of  law,  a 

school  of  medicine,  and  a  veterinary  college. 

The  School  of  Pedagogy  was  formally  established  fn  1890, 
though  its  origin  properly  dates  back  to  the  school  year  of 
1887-S8.  It  was  in  the  latter  year  that  Dr.  Jerome  Allen 
was  appointed  "Professor  of  Pedagogy"  and  offered  a 
course  of  "  instruction  in  Pedagogics  for  graduate  students" 
who  were  candidates  for  advanced  degrees.  At  the  earnest 
solicitation  of  several  prominent  teachers,  he  was  induced  to 
ofifer,  in  addition  to  the  above,  courses  of  university  exten- 
sion lectures  upon  pedagogics  to  classes  ojt  non-matriculants, 
not  candidates  for  degrees.  These  courses  were  largely 
attended  by  resident  teachers  and  became  sufficiently  popu- 
lar to  lead  to  the  establishment  of  the  school  of  pedagogy 
a  few  years  later. 

In  the  Minutes  of  the  Council  creating  the 

PURPOSE   OF  ui/  J  •i.U/11-~i.i. 

school  of  pedagogy  is  the  following   state- 

THE  SCHOOL  r  o     oy  o  ^ 

ment :  "  The  School  of  Pedagogy  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  the  City  of  New  York  is  established  this  third  day 
of  March,  i8x^0,  to  give  higher  training  to  persons  who  may 
have  devoted  themselves  to  teaching  as  their  calling,  and 
who  are  graduates  of  colleges  of  Arts  and  Science ;  or  who 
are  graduates  of  Normal  Schools  or  Colleges  of  the  State  of 
New  York ;  or  who  are  able  to  present  testimonials  of  gen- 
eral scholarship  and  culture  equal  to  those  received  by  the 
graduates  of  the  New  York  State  Normal  Schools."     It  is 


140  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [i^q 

claimed  that  this  was  the  first  purely  professional  university 
school  of  pedagogy  established  in  America,  ranking  on  the 
same  plane  as  schools  of  medicine  and  of  law. 

"  The  aim  of  the  School  of  Pedagogy  is  to 
AIM  OF  THE    furnish    thorough    and    complete    professional 

SCHOOL  .    .  °  . 

training  for  teachers.  For  this  purpose  it 
brings  together  all  that  bears  upon  pedagogy  from  the  his- 
tory of  education,  from  analytical,  experimental  and  physi- 
ological psychology,  from  the  science  of  medicine,  from 
ethics,  from  philosophy,  from  aesthetics,  from  sociology, 
from  the  principles  and  art  of  teaching,  and  from  a  compar- 
ative study  of  different  national  systems  of  education.  It 
unifies  this  knowledge  into  a  body  of  pedagogical  doctrine, 
and  points  out  its  application  to  the  practical  work  of  the 
educator."' 

The  school  of  pedagogy  is  purely  a  professional  school 
devoting  its  entire  attention  to  psychology  and  pedagogy. 
From  two  professors  in  1890,  it  now  has  four  professors  and 
ten  or  more  lecturers.  The  school  has  had  to  depend  for 
support  upon  student  fees  and  voluntary  contributions  and 
has  been  unable  to  expand  as  rapidly  as  other  schools  of 
education  established  later. 

The  School  of  Pedagogy  is  situated  at  Washington  Square, 
New  York  city,  right  in  the  midst  of  the  great  body  of  city 
teachers,  but  being  a  purely  graduate  school  and  separated 
from  the  academic  or  undergraduate  department  of  the  Uni- 
versity (ten  miles  away  at  Washington  Heights),  it  does  not 
attract  as  it  probably  otherwise  would.  It  has  no  model  or 
experimental  school,  and  makes  no  provision  for  practice- 
teaching,  though  it  is  probable  that  the  great  majority  of  its 
students  have  had  experience  in  teaching. 

The  school  offers  two  graduate  courses,  one  leading  to 
the  degree  of  Master  of  Pedagogy,  the  other  to  the  degree 

^  Neiv  York  Univ.,  School  of  Pedagogy  Announcement,  1901. 


141  ]  HISTORY  OF  SPECIAL  MOVEMENT  j^I 

of  Doctor  of  Pedagogy,  both  requiring  a  thesis  and  at  least 
one  year  of  resident  graduate  study.  At  present  (1901) 
there  are  about  350  students  in  attendance,  many  of  whom 
are  superintendents  and  teachers  of  long  experience. 

From  its  establishment  in  the  early  seyen- 

UNIVERSITY   OF      ,  .  .  .       ~"*7        ~~ 

CALIFORNIA  ^^^^  ^^  Berkeley,  the  University  of  California  has 
DEPARTMENT  takctt  the  leading  position  among  the  better 
OF  EDUCATION  univcrsitics  of  the  far  West.  It  received  great 
impetus  and  benefit  from  the  pleasant  rivalry  created  by  the 
opening  of  Leland  Stanford  Jr.  University  in  1891-92,  and 
for  a  time  seemed  likely  to  be  overshadowed  by  the  rapid 
growth  and  greater  originality  of  the  newer  mstituliQn.  But 
the  early  deatli  of  Senator  Stanford. the  consequent  loss  and 
delay  in  appropriations,  and  the  late  unfortunate,  and  prob- 
ably unforeseen,  difficulties  affecting  the  teaching  body,  have 
resulted  in  placing  the  University  of  California  again  notice- 
ably in  the  lead. 

The  University  easily  ranks  with  the  best  institutions  of 
its  kind  in  this  country.  It  is  first  and  foremost  a  teaching 
institution,  and  its  department  of  education  is  representative 
of  the  best  type  of  such  departments  in  state  universities. 
No  State  ranks  higher  than  California  in  its  teaching  body, 
and  this  condition  is  due  in  large  part  to  the  immediate 
influence  of  the  State  University. 

Beginning  with  the  early  eighties  the  follow- 
TEACHERs      -^       Statement  is  made  in  the  University  regis- 

COURSES  "  JO 

ter:  "Upon  recommendation  of  the  Faculty, 
a  diploma  from  the  University  entitles  the  holder  to  a 
teacher's  certificate."  From  this  time  forward  "Teachers' 
Courses"  have  been  scheduled  in  different  departments. 
Such  courses  increased  in  number  until  in  1891-92,  the  year 
preceding  the  establishment  of  the  department  of  education, 
there    were    "  Teachers'    Courses "    scheduled    in    English, 


1 4  2  ^^'^  INING  O  F  SE  CO  A' DA  R  Y  TEA  CHERS  \\\2 

Greek,  Latin,  History  and  Political  Science,  Mathematics, 
and  Philosophy.  But  prior  to  the  establishment  of  the 
department  of  education  these  courses  seem  to  have  been 
designated  teachers'  courses  because  of  the  content  or  nature 
of  the  subject  matter,  and  not  because  of  the  manner  of  the 
treatment  nor  because  they  were  devoted  to  the  methods  of 
teaching  the  subject.  In  other  words  these  courses  were 
equally  appropriate  to  students  who  had  no  thought  of 
teaching. 

In  the  University  register  for  1891-92,  under  the  head  of 
"  Pedagogics,"  is  published  the  following  resolution,  taken 
from  the  minutes  of  the  meeting  of  the  Board  of  Regents 
for  May  14,  1889:  "Resolved,  That  the  Academic  Senate 
be  authorized  to  announce  the  intention  of  this  Board  to 
establish  a  course  of  instruction  in  the  science  and  art  of 
teaching  as  soon  as  the  same  can  be  properly  organized." 
The  same  year  under  the  department  of  philosophy  is  to  be 
found  the  following  statement:  "It  is  the  intention  of  the 
^/Department  oi'  Philosophy,  not  later  than  the  year  1892-93, 
to  offer  at  least  one  Course  in  addition  to  the  above  (a 
course  in  Empirical  psychology,  including  formal  logic,  de- 
ductive and  inductive. — G.  W.  A.  L.),  especially  designed  for 
teachers,  upon  some  essential  branch  of  pedagogics."  Such 
-was  the  apparent  condition  of  affairs  when,  in  1892  93,  the 
Department  of  Pedagogy  was  established,  and  Dr.  Elmer  E, 
Brown,  instructor  in  Pedagogy  University  of  Michigan,  was 
appointed  Associate  Professor  of  the  Science  and  Art  of 
Teaching,  in  charge  of  the  department. 

An  incident  which  probably  had  much  to  do  with  focus- 
sing the  desires  for  a  department  of  education  at  the  State 
University  was  the  opening  the  year  previous  of  the 
Leland  Stanford  Jr.  University  with  its  department  of  educa- 
tion. The  establishment  of  a  department  of  education  by 
the  latter  institution  was   appreciated  by  the  teachers  of  the 


143]  ^^^^  '^^^  ^  ^^  ^^^ ^^■'^^  '^^^  ^'^ ^'^^^ ^'  1 43 

State,  and  many  experienced  teachers  who  were  planning  to 
enter  the  State  University  changed  their  plans  and  went  to 
Stanford  instead.  It  should  also  be  mentioned  that  at  this 
time  California  had  two  good  and  prosperous  state  normal 
schools,  and  no  provision  for  free  public  high  schools  ;  these 
facts  would  tend  to  lessen  the  real  necessity  for  a  collegiate 
department  of  education. 

The  undercurrent  of  feeling  which  soon  found 

NATURE   OF  •  •  J     u •     u  1  1    l  •  i  i- 

expression  m  a  good  high  school  law,  in  addi- 

THE  WORK  ^  &  & 

tion  to  what  has  gone  before,  made  the  times 
seem  especially  propitious  for  the  establishment  of  a  univer- 
sity department  of  education.  Dr.  Brown  was  able  to  organ- 
ize the  isolated  "Teachers'  Courses"  in  the  different  acad- 
emic subjects,  into  complete  and  extended  pedagogical 
courses  with  definite  meaning,  covering  both  professional 
and  academic  instruction.  Such  a  group  of  professional 
courses  was  established  the  first  year  leading  to  the  Univer- 
sity Teachers'  Certificate. 

The  requirements  for  the  University  Teachers' 

REQUIREMENTS    ^  .  ^  r  • 

FOR  UNIVERSITY  Certificate,  as  first  established,  were  quite  sim- 
TEACHERs' CER-  liar  to  thosc  of  the  University  of  Michigan,  and 
TiFicATE  are  as  follows :  "  (a)  Special  Knowledge.  The 
completion  of  work  amounting  normally  to  ten  hours  per 
week  for  one  year,  in  the  subject  or  group  of  closely  allied 
subjects  that  the  candidate  expects  to  teach ;  the  ultimate 
decision  as  to  the  candidate's  proficiency  resting  with  the 
heads  of  the  departments  concerned. 

(b)  Professional  Knowledge.  The  completion  of  work  in 
Pedagogy  (which  may  include  the  Course  on  the  Philosophy 
of  Education)  amounting  to  six  hours  per  week  for  one 
year. 

(c)  General  Knowledge.  Courses  sufficient  to  represent 
(with  the  inclusion  of  Special  Studies)  four  groups  from  the 
following  list:     Natural  Science,  Mathematics,  English,  For- 


144  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  \\AA 

eign  Languages,  History,  Philosophy.  This  requirement  is 
intended  to  secure  as  broad  culture  as  possible  and  sympa- 
thy with  the  various  lines  of  High  School  work."' 

The  requirements  for  the  University  teachers'  certificate  as 
outlined  above  cover  two  years  of  university  study,  but  since 
the  work  is  also  credited  toward  the  university  degree,  it 
does  not  necessarily  lengthen  the  college  course.  A  slight 
modification  has  been  made  in  the  professional  requirements 
in  that  at  least  eight  of  the  twelve  hours  (per  week  for  one 
half  year)  must  be  taken  in  the  department  of  education, 
while  the  remaining  four  hours  may  be  devoted  to  an  ap- 
proved course  on  methods  of  teaching  as  ofifered  in  the 
academic  department  in  which  the  student  is  most  interested. 
With  this  exception  the  requirements  remain  the  same  as 
when  first  established.  Many  other  universities  have  estab- 
lished similar  courses,  each  leading  to  a  university  teachers' 
certificate.  Such  certificates  are  usually  granted  only  to 
graduates  of  the  institution,  and  are  accepted  in  lieu  of  all 
teachers'  examinations  in  the  state  in  which  they  are  granted, 
and  frequently  in  many  other  states. 

The  aim  of  the  department  as  first  expressed 

AIM  OF  THE    ^^^  since  maintained  is  given  in  the  University 

DEPARTMENT  .  °     .  ' 

Register  as  follows :  "  It  is  the  purpose  of  the 
Courses  in  Pedagogy  to  afiford  such  instruction  in  the  prin- 
ciples and  the  history  of  education  as  is  desirable  in  a  truly 
liberal  culture,  and  to  provide  adequate  professional  prepa- 
ration for  University  students  who  expect  to  teach.  The 
courses  are  reserved  for  the  third  and  fourth  years  of  college 
residence." 

The   courses   offered  by  the    department  of 
NATURE  OF     g^ju^ation  in  1892-93  were  as  follows:      i.  The 

THE   WORK 

practice  (art)  of  teaching,  four  hours  per  week, 
second   term;    2.  School  Supervision,  two  hours  per  week, 

*  University  Rugisier  for  i8g2-gj,  p.  41, 


145]  HISTORY  OF  SPECUL  MOrEAfENr  145 

first  term;  3.  The  History  of  Education,  earlier  periods, 
three  hours  per  week,  first  term  ;  4.  The  History  of  Educa- 
tion, later  periods,  three  hours  per  week,  second  term;  5. 
The  Theory  of  Education,  four  hours  per  week,  first  term ; 
6.  The  Origin  and  Development  of  School  Systems,  one 
hour  per  week,  second  term  ;  7.  Seminary  for  the  compar- 
ative study  of  schools  and  school  systems,  two  hours  per 
week,  two  terms.  To  these  courses  have  since  been  added 
courses  on  :  Child  Study  ;  School  Hygiene  ;  Practice,  and 
Visitation  of  Schools ;  Studies  in  Secondary  Education ; 
Ethnology;  The  Development  of  Character ;  and  Seminaries 
for  the  study  of  special  problems  in  education. 

Some  opportunity  is  afTorded  for  practice-teaching,  and 
visitation  of  schools  and  observation  of  teaching  arc  provided 
for  all.  "  The  Tompkins  School  in  Oakland  is  conducted 
as  the  regular  observation  school  of  the  Department  of 
Pedagogy." 

The  teaching  force  in  the  Department  of  Education  in 
1900  was  as  follows :  Elmer  E.  Brown,  Ph.  D.,  Professor  of 
the  Theory  and  Practice  of  Education ;  Thomas  P.  Bailey, 
Jr.,  Ph.  D.,  Associate  Professor  of  Education  as  Related  to 
Character;  Fletcher  B.  Dresslar,  Ph.  D.,  Assistant  Professor 
of  the  Science  and  Art  of  Teaching;  and  T.  L.  Heaton, 
B.  L.,  LL.  B.,  Assistant  in  Pedagogy. 

r.^„,.T,  rTv,T-^„       There  are  many  other  departments  of  educa- 

OTHER  UNIvER-  ^  >■ 

siTY  DEPART-    tion  conccming  which  the  length  of  this  chapter 
MENTs  OF      vvill  permit  only  the  briefest  mention. 

Attention  has  already  been  called  to  the  De- 
partment of  Education  in  Leland   Stanford  Jr. 

LELAND  STAN-     tt     •  -i.  i.-    l.  j  -^.1,     i.U        U 

University  which  was  opened  with  the  begin- 

FORD  JR  UNI-  .... 

vERsiTY       ning  of  the  institution  in    1891.     Earl  Barnes, 

who  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  department 

as  Professor  of  Education,  was   full  of  ideas,  vigorous,  and 


1^6  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [146 

original,  though  more  suggestive  than  critical.  He  was  a 
true  student  wedded  to  no  traditions.  In  his  lectures 
throughout  the  State  and  in  his  conduct  of  the  department 
he  aroused  the  teaching  force  and  stimulated  thought  as  but 
few  others  have  been  able  to  do.  His  work  was  more  that 
of  an  investigator  than  that  of  an  instructor.  Among  his 
strongest  courses  were :  The  History  of  Education;  Child 
Study;  Educational  Classics;  and  the  Seminary  for  the 
study  of  special  problems. 

Professor  Barnes  resigned  his  position  in  1897  to  travel 
and  study  abroad,  and  the  department  was  temporarily  filled 
by  transferring  E.  H.  Griggs,  A.  M.,  from  Professor  of  Ethics 
to  Professor  of  Education  and  appointing  E.  P.  Cubberley, 
A.  B.,  and  E.  D.  Starbuck,  Ph.  D.,  as  Assistant  Professors 
of  Education  with  Margaret  E.  Schallenberger,  Instructor  in 
Education.  Professor  Griggs  was  a  brilliant  man  and  a 
popular  lecturer  but  did  not  possess  the  training  requisite 
for  the  head  of  a  modern  department  of  education.  Twenty 
odd  courses  were  scheduled  in  the  department  many  of  which 
had  but  little  immediate  interest  for  teachers. 

The  following  year  Mr.  E.  P.  Cubberley  was  made  Asso- 
ciate Professor  of  Education  in  charge  of  the  department, 
and  Dr.  Starbuck  continued  as  Assistant  Professor  of  Edu- 
cation. Since  the  change  from  the  administration  of  Pro- 
fessor Barnes  the  department  has  attracted  less  attention,  but 
has  probably  been  as  successful  in  instructional  work. 

In  January,  1888,  twelve  or  more  members 

NORTHWESTERN  Qf  \\-^^  senior  class,  looking  forward  to  the  teach- 

'     ing  profession,  requested  Rev.  Herbert  F.  Fisk, 

EVANSTON,  fc>    r  '         M 

ILLINOIS       D.  D.,  Principal  of  the  Academy  of  the  North- 
western University,  to  ofifer  a  course  of  lectures 
on  Pedagogy.     These  were  given  for  three  months  without 
university  credit.     In  March  the  Faculty  voted  to  recognize 


147]  HISTORY  OF  SPECIAL  MOVEMENT  j^jr 

the  course  for  the  next  term  as  elective  work.  The  interest 
and  appreciation  shown  by  the  students  seemed  to  the  trus- 
tees to  be  sufficient  reason  to  warrant  the  estabHshment  of 
the  work  permanently.  Consequently,  in  June  of  that  year, 
a  co-ordinate  department  of  pedagogy  was  established  in 
the  University,  and  Dr.  Fisk,  the  present  incumbent,  ap- 
pointed "  Professor  of  Pedagogics,"  while  still  continuing  as 
principal  of  the  University  Academy. 

The  department  of  pedagogy  in  the  Univer- 

UNrVERSITY  .  r  »     »y 

OF  TEXAS,  DE-  ^^^7  °^  Tcxas  was  established  in  \'6()\-2,  and 
PARTMENT  OF  Jos.  Baldwin,  LL.D.,  appointed  professor  in 
EDUCATION  charge.  The  department  began  as  a  co-ordi- 
nate department  of  the  University,  and  the  courses  were 
open  as  electives  to  juniors  and  seniors.  The  annual  cata- 
logue gave  as  the  purpose  of  the  department:  "to  prepare 
teachers  for  the  best  positions  by  uniting  liberal  scholarship 
with  the  most  helpful  professional  training."  The  subjects 
first  offered  were :  the  art  of  school  management ;  the 
art  of  teaching;  applied  psychology;  and  the  history  of 
education. 

In  January,  1896,  the  Regents  abolished  the  department, 
but  re-established  it  again  the  following  year.  Dr.  Baldwin 
was  made  Professor  Emeritus  of  Pedagogy,  W.  S.  Sutton, 
M.  A.,  Professor  of  Pedagogy,  and  A.  Caswell  Ellis,  Ph.  D., 
Adjunct  Professor  of  Pedagogy.  Since  the  re-organization 
the  department  of  education  has  been  unusually  successful, 
and  ranks  with  the  best  of  its  kind  in  the  South. 

In  1890-91  Dr.  Chas.DeGarmo  was  called  to 

UNIVERSITY   OF 

ILLINOIS  DE-    ^"^  University  of  Illmois  as   professor  of  Psy- 
PARTMRNT  OF   chology,  and  seems  to  have  offered  courses  in 
EDUCATION     philosophy  and  pedagogy  which  students  might 
elect  in  their  junior  and  senior  years.    The  professional  sub- 
jects mentioned    are:    educational   psychology;    science  of 


148  TRAINING  or  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [148 

instruction;  special  methods;  school  supervision;  the  his- 
tory of  education ;  and  the  philosophy  of  education.  The 
next  year  Dr.  DeGarmo  resigned  and  the  following  year 
(1892-93)  Dr.  W.  O.  Krohn  was  appointed  Assistant  Pro- 
fessor of  Psychology.  He  devoted  about  one  half  of  his 
time  to  pedagogy  and  presented  courses  somewhat  similar 
to  those  ofTered  by  Dr.  DeGarmo. 

In  1893-94  a  department  of  pedagogy  was  created,  and 
Dr.  Frank  M.  McMurry  appointed  Professor  of  Pedagogics. 
No  outline  is  given  of  the  courses  that  were  offered  this 
year.  The  statement,  however,  is  made  that,  "  The  work  in 
Pedagogics  includes  both  the  theory  and  practice  of  teaching." 

The  next  year  (1894-95)  Wm.  J.  EckofT,  Ph.  D.,  was  called 
as  Professor  of  Pedagogics  in  place  of  Dr.  McMurry,  who 
had  resigned  to  accept  the  Presidency  of  the  School  of  Ped- 
agogy, University  of  Buffalo.  Like  his  predecessor,  Dr. 
EckofT  remained  but  one  year  and  the  chair  was  then  filled 
by  Arnold  Tompkins,  A.  M.,  as  Professor  of  Pedagogy.  The 
chair  is  now  occupied  by  Dr.  E.  G.  Dexter. 

Since  the  organization  of  the  department  in  1893  it  has  re- 
mained a  separate  co-ordinate  department  of  the  University. 

Pedagogical   instruction  was   first   organized 

RUTGERS   COL-  fc>     i=>  & 

LEGE,  DEPART-  in  Rutgcrs   College,  New  Brunswick,  New  Jer- 

MENT  OF      sey,  in    1892.       It  began   as    an    independent 

EDUCATION     department.       The    Head    Master    of    Rutgers 

Preparatory  School,   Dr.  Eliot  R.   Payson,   was    appointed 

Professor  of  History  and  Art  of  Teaching,  and  was  directed 

to  give  lectures  to  the  seniors   during  one  term  of  the  year. 

In    1894  the  University  of  Pennsylvania   to 

UNIVERSITY  OF  j^ggt  ^-^g  nccds  of  teachcrs,  who  on  account  of 

PENN  SYLVAN  I A 

department'  ^^^"^  duties  could  not  attend  the  regular  college 

OF  education  courses  in  the  morning  hour,  offered  a  series  of 

courses    for    teachers,    extending    throughout 


149]  HISTORY  OF  SPECIAL  MOVEMENT  149 

the  year.  These  courses  were  arranged  so  as  to  avoid  con- 
flict with  the  hours  of  public  school  service.  The  instruction 
was  both  academic  and  professional,  and  was  adjusted  to 
students  having  at  least  a  normal  or  high  school  training. 
At  this  time  Martin  G.  Brumbaugh,  A.  M.,  was  made  Pro- 
fessor of  Pedagogy  in  the  University,  and  chairman  of  the 
committee  on  "  Courses  for  Teachers."  The  Department  of 
Pedagogy  was  established  "  as  a  result  of  a  recognized 
need  in  the  community,"  enforced  by  a  grant  of  $100  by  the 
Public  Educational  Association  of  Philadelphia.  The  de- 
partment of  education  was  created  and  still  remains  a  sub- 
department  of  philosophy. 

A  department  of  pedagogy  was  established 

UNrVERSiTY  OF  ,  __     .  .  tvt    ,  ,         •  r,  i  i 

NEBRASKA  '"  ^"^  Univcrsity  of  Nebraska  m  1895,  though 
DEPARTMENT  for  scvcral  years  prior  Dr.  H.  K.  Wolfe,  pro- 
oF  EDUCATION  fgssor  of  Philosophy,  in  response  to  the  solicit- 
ation of  teachers  and  students,  had  offered  annually  a  few 
courses  in  pedagogy.  The  interest  manifested  in  this  peda- 
gogical instruction  was  so  pronounced  that  the  Regents  felt 
warranted  in  granting  the  request  for  a  new  department.  To 
the  unselfishness  of  Dr.  H.  K.  Wolfe  is  due  the  fact  that 
pedagogy  was  established  as  a  separate  co-ordinate  depart- 
ment instead  of  a  sub-department  of  philosophy.  In  1900 
the  title  of  the  department  was  changed  to  read  "  Depart- 
ment of  Education  "  instead  of  "  Department  of  Pedagogy  " 
as  at  first  established. 

In  1895  the  subject  of  pedagogy  was  added 

UNIVERSITY  OF  ,  ,  ,       ,   .,  i  i   •     ,         i  i 

COLORADO  ^°  *"^  department  of  philosophy  which  already 
DEPARTMENT  iucludcd,  bcsidcs  philosophy  proper,  ethics 
OF  EDUCATION  jogic  and  psychology.  This  arrangement  con- 
tinued until  1898  when  the  department  of  philosophy  was 
divided  into  two  departments,  the  one  including  "Philosophy, 
Logic,  and  Ethics,"  the  other  designated  the  "  Department 
of  Psychology    and    Education."      Professor  Arthur  AlHn> 


I  5  o        TRAINING  OF  SE CONDAR  Y  TEA  CHERS  [150 

Ph.  D,,  is  head  of  the  latter  department.     Hence  pedagogy 
is  not  a  separate  department. 

In  Syracuse  University,  New  York,  pedagogical  instruction 
was  first  offered  in  the  department  of  philosophy,  but  a  sep- 
arate co-ordinate  department  of  pedagogy  was  established 
in  1896. 

In   1901   the    Chicago   Institute,   established 

SCHOOL   OF  ,  .  ,  T»,r  T-  -r.,     • 

EDUCATION  ^"^  y^^^  previous  by  Mrs.  bmmons  Blame  as  a 
CHICAGO  school  of  pedagogy,  was  consolidated  with  the 
UNIVERSITY  Chicago  University  forming  with  the  latter  a 
great  "School  of  Education"  which  furnishes  instruction  to 
teachers  of  all  grades  from  the  kindergarten  through  the 
college.  This  school  as  now  equipped  and  planned  is  quite 
similar  to  that  of  the  Teachers  College  Columbia  University 
already  described.  It  does  not  do  away  with  the  pedagog- 
ical instruction  offered  by  Professor  John  Dewey  in  connec- 
tion with  the  department  of  philosophy  but  supplements 
and  enforces  it. 

Wellesley,  Bryn   Mavvr,  Smith  College,  Mid- 

CHAiRs  OF  PED- diebury  College,  Vermont  University,  Univer- 

AGOGY  ESTAB-  ^      ^^  Dcnvcr,  and  the  University  of  Chicago 

LISHED   IN  ^  ^  c 

1898  AND  IN  all  provided  for  pedagogical  instruction  in 
1899  1898.  In  most  of  these  schools  pedagogy  has 
been  made  a  sub-department  of  philosophy, 
due  in  part  to  the  limited  amount  of  teaching  force  and  in 
part  to  the  old  idea  that  philosophy  is  the  subject /^r  excel- 
lence for  the  teacher. 

In  1899  the  University  of  Maine,  the  University  of  Ala- 
bama, Howard  University,  Washington,  D.  C,  Furnam 
University,  Greenville,  S.  C,  Ottawa  University,  Kansas,  and 
Mount  Holyoke,  Mass.,  opened  departments  of  pedagogy. 
Since  then  many  other  institutions  have  been  added  to  the 
hst,  so  that  to-day,  with  but  two  or  three  exceptions,  every 
university  of  prominence  in  the  United  States  has  a  depart- 


I  5  I  ]  HIS  TORY  OF  SPE  CIAL  MO  VEMENT  \  5  i 

merit   of    pedagogy,  or    better  of    ediication,  the    name    by 
which  these  departments  are  now  most  frequently  designated.  ' 

It  is  quite  probable  that  a  number  of  institutions  have 
been  omitted  which  should  have  been  included  in  this  ar- 
ticle ;  although  it  has  not  been  the  intention  to  give  an 
exhaustive  list  of  institutions  having  pedagogical  depart- 
ments, which  has  not  been  done,  but  rather  to  give  a  brief 
account  of  a  sufificient  number  of  characteristic  departments 
to  show  the  development,  purpose,  nature,  and  trend  of 
pedagogical  instruction  in  this  country. 

To  recapitulate  briefly,  the  history  of  the 
RECAPITULATION  professional  training  of  teachers  in  the  United 
States  shows  three  distinct  movements;  the  normal  school 
movement  described  in  chapter  two  which  began  with  the 
educational  revival  in  the  middle  of  the  first  half  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  the  movement  for  the  establishment  of 
normal  departments  in  colleges  and  universities  described  in 
chapter  three  which  began  with  the  second  half  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  and  the  movement  for  the  establishment  of 
university  departments  of  education  described  in  the  above 
chapter  and  which  has  taken  form  within  the  last  twenty 
years. 

The  movement  which  led  to  the  establishment  of  normal 
schools  had  for  its  clearly  expressed  purpose  the  preparation 
of  elementary  and  district  school  teachers.  This  object, 
though  frequently  modified  by  the  normal  schools  to  meet 
new  conditions,  has  remained  at  base  the  main  reason  for 
the  establishment  of  normal  schools  from  that  day  to  the 
present. 

In  the  movement  for  the  establishment  of  normal  depart- 
ments in  colleges  and  universities  the  expressed  purposes 
have  been  far  less  definite  and  uniform.  In  many  instances 
these  departments   have  been  the  direct  outgrowth  of  legis- 


1^2  TRAINING  OF  SECONDAR  Y  TEA  CIIERS  [152 

lative  action  in  creating  state  universities,  and  in  such  cases 
they  have  usually  been  intended  to  take  the  place  of  state 
normal  schools  and  to  prepare  teachers  for  the  elementary 
grades.  In  some  instances  these  departments  have  been 
called  forth  in  order  to  aid  university  students  in  their  rivalry 
with  normal  school  graduates  for  positions  in  the  public 
school  service.  They  have  varied  in  their  objects  from  the 
preparation  of  elementary  teachers  on  the  one  hand  to  the 
preparation  of  teachers  for  any  and  all  grades  of  public 
school  work  on  the  other;  in  one  case  loosely  affiliated  with 
the  university,  in  another  connected  with  the  preparatory 
department  or  even  taking  the  place  of  this  department,  and 
again  established  as  a  coordinate  department  of  the  univer- 
sity itself.  From  the  lack  of  clearly  defined  purposes  and 
because  of  covering  ground  thought  to  be  pre-empted  by 
other  institutions  these  departments  have  met  with  the 
almost  continued  opposition  of  the  normal  schools  from 
without,  and  the  university  faculties  from  within.  Through 
the  processes  of  growth  and  development  they  have  come, 
for  the  most  part,  to  take  on  one  of  two  forms ;  either  they 
have  become  actual  state  normal  schools  combined  with  the 
state  university,  as  in  Nevada,  Utah  and  Wyoming,  or  they 
have  grown  into  regular  university  departments  of  education 
for  the  special  professional  training  of  secondary  teachers, 
as  in  the  universities  of  Iowa,  Kansas,  Missouri,  Wisconsin, 
and  others. 

The  movement  for  the  establishment  of  university  depart- 
ments of  education  co-ordinate  with  other  collegiate  depart- 
ments of  the  same  institution  had  a  more  definite  and  clearly 
expressed  ideal.  From  the  first  the  main  object  of  depart- 
ments of  education  has  been  the  professional  training  of 
secondary  school  teachers — city  superintendents,  elementary 
and  high  school  principals,  high  school,  normal,  and  college 
instructors ;   a  second  and  almost  equal  purpose  has  been 


153]  HIS  rOR  Y  OF  SPE  CIAL  MO  VEMENT  i  5  3 

the  study  and  scientific  investigation  of  educational  prob- 
lems— a  sort  of  educational  laboratory  or  clearing-house  for 
the  purpose  of  intelligently  co-ordinating  and  adjusting  the 
various  problems  connected  with  public  education.  When 
they  have  fallen  short  of  this  ideal  it  has  usually  been  on 
account  of  the  lack  of  appreciation  and  support  on  the  part 
of  the  administration,  or  because  a  weak,  inefficient  man  has 
been  placed  at  the  head  of  the  department.  These  depart- 
ments have  come  in  for  their  full  share  of  criticism  ;  first,  as 
should  have  been  anticipated,  by  professors  in  the  older 
departments  of  the  universities  whose  territory  thus  seemed 
to  have  been  infringed  upon ;  second,  by  their  brethren  in 
the  normal  schools  who  had  come  to  look  upon  the  profess- 
ional training  of  secondary  teachers  as  their  legitimate  field  ; 
another  class  of  criticisms  has  been  the  result  of  the  want 
of  knowledge,  while  still  others  have  been  just  and  valuable. 
Yet,  notwithstanding  the  criticisms,  these  departments  have 
continually  grown  in  scientific  and  popular  favor  and  have 
become  a  permanent  and  important  addition  to  the  educa- 
tional system. 


CHAPTER  V 

PEDAGOGICAL  INSTRUCTION— WHAT, 
WHEN,  HOW 

The  greater  number  of  the  departments  of  education  in 
colleges  and  universities  in  the  United  States  have  been  in 
existence  for  less  than  ten  years,  a  period  scarcely  long 
enough  to  give  them  an  established  curriculum  and  a  defi- 
nite form,  but  a  period  probably  long  enough  to  indicate 
what  are  considered  to  be  the  more  essential  subjects  in  the 
professional  training  of  teachers  and  the  more  important 
lines  of  cleavage  for  future  adjustment. 

In   the  working  out  of  a  new  problem   by 
LACK  OF         , . ..  .         .... 

UNIFORMITY     Qincrent  persons  under  different  environments, 

although  the  end  in  view  be  the  same,  the 
means  to  that  end  are  apt  to  show  great  individuality  of 
character.  A  certain  amount  of  variation  in  educational 
courses  is  essential  to  healthy  growth  and  is  a  sign  of  virility, 
but  a  study  of  the  courses  scheduled  by  departments  of 
education  has  convinced  the  writer  that  much  of  the  varia- 
tion is  due  to  the  inefficiency  and  lack  of  proper  training  of 
the  professors  themselves.' 

*  It  is  not  an  uncommon  occurrence  for  a  president  of  a  university  to  call  to  the 
professorship  of  education  a  man  who  has  had  absolutely  no  scientific  training  for 
the  field  over  which  he  is  given  control.  These  calls  have  resulted,  no  doubt,  as 
a  reward  of  merit,  but  too  often  it  has  been  for  merit  in  other  than  pedagogical 
lines,  and  in  some  cases  it  seems  that  the  call  has  been  the  result  of  an  effort  to 
find  a  place  for  a  man  who  is  thought  to  be  able  to  do  less  harm  in  a  department 
of  education  than  elsewhere.  The  friends  of  no  other  department  at  the  present 
day  would  be  thus  insulted,  and  there  is  no  longer  any  valuable  reason  why  the 
professors  of  education  should  not  be  as  carefully  trained  for  their  work  as  are  the 
professors  of  other  departments.  No  one  would  think  of  caUing  a  man  to  the 
154  [154 


155]  PEDAGOGIGAL  INSTRUCTION  155 

The  librarian  must  often  be  puzzled  in  cataloguing  new 
books  owing  to  the  variance  between  title  and  content,  so, 
in  the  table  given  below,  it  has  been  a  difficult  matter  to 
arrange  a  proper  grouping  of  subjects  from  the  title  of 
courses  to  be  found  in  the  university  catalogues.  To  illus- 
trate;  the  terms  "Philosophy  of  education,"  "Science  of 
education,"  "  Principles  of  education,"  "  Institutes  of  educa- 
tion "  and  "Educational  theory,"  are  all  different  in  mean- 
ing, and  yet  as  titles  to  universitiy  courses  they  are  used  to 
cover  almost  similar  ground.  Under  the  head  of  "  Prin- 
ciples of  education"  one  professor  says:  "This  course  aims 
to  lay  the  basis  for  a  scientific  theory  of  education  con- 
sidered as  a  human  institution.  The  process  of  education  is 
explained  from  the  standpoint  of  the  doctrine  of  evolution, 
and  the  fundamental  principles  thus  arrived  at  are  applied 
from  the  threefold  standpoint  of  the  history  of  civilization, 
the  developing  powers  of  the  child,  and  the  cultivation  of 
individual  and  social  efficiency."  Another  professor  under 
the  head  of  "Institutes  of  education,"  says:  "  In  this  course 
education  is  treated  first,  as  to  its  aims,  its  principles  and  its 
means  from  the  standpoint  of  the  physical,  intellectual,  and 
moral  nature  of  man."  Likewise  school  organization,  school 
management,  and  school  supervision  are  frequently  com- 
bined in  a  single  course  under  the  head  of  school  super- 
vision and  management,  and  may  even  include  lectures  on 
methods  of  instruction  and  the  art  of  teaching,  though  the 
latter  subjects  are  more  often  given  separate  treatment. 
Even  the  common  phrase  "  Plistory  of  education,"  which  has 
taken  on  so  definite  a  meaning,  is  not  always  used  consist- 
ently as  indicative  of  the  content  of  university  courses.  So 
eminent  an  educational  writer  as  the  late  Thomas  Davidson 
entitles  a  treatise  on  education — "  A  History  of  Education  '» 

professorship  of  Latin,  of  Physics,  of  History  who  has  not  had  special  training  in 
these  lines,  neither  should  a  man  be  called  to  the  chair  of  education  who  has  not 
had  the  best  university  training  afforded  in  the  particular  lines  he  is  to  follow. 


I  5  6  TRAINING  OF  SE CONDAR  Y  TEA  CHERS  [156 

which   might   have  been   designated    more  appropriately,  a 
history  of  the  philosophy  of  education. 

Notwithstanding    the    difficulties    mentioned 

EVOLUTION  OF  abovc,   an   effort    has   been    made   to   show   in 

tabular  form  the  evolution  and  relative  import- 

COURSES  ^ 

ance  of  the  courses  offered  by  departments  of 
education  during  the  past  ten  years.  For  this  purpose 
twenty  representative  universities,  that  were  among  the  first 
to  establish  departments  of  education,  have  been  selected,  as 
follows :  The  Universities  of  Iowa,  Indiana,  Michigan,  Wis- 
consin, Missouri,  Texas,  California,  Minnesota,  Kansas, 
North  Carolina,  Pennsylvania,  Nebraska  and  Ohio  (State)  ; 
Columbia  (including  Teachers  College),  Clark,  Leland  Stan- 
ford, Harvard,  Cornell,  Brown  and  New  York  universities. 
Some  of  these  institutions  did  not  have  departments  of  edu- 
cation prior  to  1896-97,  while  only  seven  of  the  departments 
herein  represented  date  back  to  the  year  1890-91.  A  list 
has  been  made  of  the  principal  courses  offered  by  the  de- 
partments of  education  in  the  above  institutions  for  the  ten 
years  beginning  with  the  school  year  1 890-91  ;  showing  the 
number  of  departments  represented  in  each  case  and  the 
total  number  of  hours  of  college  recitations  (reduced  in  all 
cases  to  a  two-semester  basis,  an  hour  representing  one 
recitation  or  class  period  per  week  for  one-half  year).  From 
these  points  it  is  quite  easy  to  note  the  relative  attention 
given  to  the  different  subjects  and  the  average  number  of 
hours  which  each  subject  that  is  offered  receives.  In  the 
preparation  of  the  table  the  thought  has  been  to  group 
together  related  subjects  in  order  to  facilitate  comparison. 
The  courses  seem  naturally  to  fall  under  the  following 
heads:  {a)  Historical;  {b)  Theoretical  or  Philosophical; 
{c)  Practical,  including  school  organization,  management, 
methods  of  instruction,  observation  and  practice-teaching; 
and  {d)  Psychological,  including  child  study,  genetic  and 
applied  psychology. 


157] 


PEDAGOGICAL  INSTRUCTION 


157 


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^,^_^     N          rOTj-vo'vO          t^OO         0\0 
•V^           OiCnOsOnOnOnoOnO 

Ron    "i        "i        "i        'i        'i        'i        'i        "i        "i 
M:yo-"          M          rOT^uovo          r^&O          On 
„„OnOnOnOnOnOnOnOnon 

0 

I  5  8  TRAINING  OF  SE CONDAR  Y  TEA  CHERS  [158 

From  what  has  already  been  said,  the  above  table  will  no 
doubt  be  self-explanatory.  The  column  headed  "  Depart- 
ments of  education"  represents  the  total  number  of  such 
departments  in  the  above  universities  for  the  year  indicated. 
Beginning  with  the  second  column,  headed  *'  History  of 
education,"  and  reading  from  left  to  right,  the  upper  row  of 
figures  marked  a,  represents  the  number  of  departments 
ofTering  courses  in  the  subjects  named  at  the  head  of  the 
column,  while  the  second  row  of  figures  marked  b,  repre- 
sents the  total  number  of  hours  given  to  the  subject  by  all 
the  departments  for  the  years  designated.  The  row  of 
figures  at  the  bottom  marked  "  Average  hours  of  course." 
indicates  the  average  time  given  to  the  subject  by  all  the 
departments  represented  for  the  ten  years  covered  by  the 
table. 

The  grouping  of  the  courses  under  the  heads 
COMMENTS  ON  HistoHcal,  Theoretical,  Practical,  and  Psycho- 

PEDAGOGICAL       ....  i       .  i    -i.  i  i- 

logical  IS  a  somewhat  arbitrary  one  depending 
as  much  upon  the  nature  and  treatment  of  the 
subjects  themselves  as  upon  the  titles  by  which  the  courses 
are  designated.  No  grouping  of  subjects  can  be  made  to  fit 
all  cases,  and  the  one  here  given  is  intended  only  to  be  sug- 
gestive. The  list  of  courses  as  given  above  does  not  include 
all  subjects,  but  only  the  principal  ones.  To  illustrate,  in 
1890-91  besides  the  subjects  enumerated  above,  there  were 
scheduled  courses  in  didactics,  libraries,  school  law,  school 
hygiene,  special  method  courses  (under  different  depart- 
ments), kindergarten  and  primary  instruction;  in  1895-96 
there  were  scheduled,  in  addition  to  the  above,  courses  in 
secondary  education,  educational  doctrines  (theory),  educa- 
tional ideals  (theory),  seminaries  (devoted  to  original  prob- 
lems), Herbartian  pedagogy,  leading  present  topics  and 
problems  of  education,  educational  reforms,  school  economy, 
current  educational  movements,  experimental   psychology, 


159]  FED  A  G  0  GICAL  INS  TR  UCTION  j  5  9 

descriptive  psychology,  physiological  pedagogics,  aesthetics 
in  relation  to  education,  sociology  in  relation  to  education, 
ethics,  development  of  character,  biological  aspect  of  educa- 
tion, and  to  these  have  been  added  a  few  other  courses  in 
later  years.  Most  of  the  subjects,  however,  not  found  in  the 
table  add  but  little  to  the  general  make  up  in  the  profes- 
sional training  of  teachers,  and  may  be  omitted  from  the 
list  of  essential  subjects. 

A  few  institutions  seem  to  be  a  law  unto  themselves,  and 
for  that  reason  it  has  been  difficult,  in  some  cases,  to  classify 
the  courses  ofifered  by  them  with  those  of  other  institutions. 
For  instance,  the  courses  on  education  scheduled  by  Clark 
University  in  1893-94  are  as  follows:  Present  status  and 
problems  of  higher  education  in  United  States  and  Europe, 
outline  of  systematic  pedagogy,  organization  of  schools  in 
Europe,  school  hygiene,  educational  reforms,  motor  educa- 
tion of  children,  and  pedagogical  seminary  ;  while  in  1897-98 
the  New  York  University  School  of  Pedagogy  scheduled 
courses  as  follows :  history  of  education,  physiological  and 
experimental  psychology,  descriptive  psychology,  history 
of  philosophy,  physiological  pedagogics,  elements  of  ped- 
agogy, systems  of  education,  aesthetics  in  relation  to  edu- 
cation, sociology  in  relation  to  education,  child  study, 
institutes  of  pedagogy,  ethics,  school  organization,  man- 
agement and  administration,  and  original  investigations. 
These  schools  are  both  graduate  institutions,  which  probably 
accounts  for  some  of  the  variations  in  courses.  The  former 
is  limited  in  the  number  of  students  and  confined  to  a  sep- 
arate department  of  education,  while  the  latter  represents  a 
complete  school  of  education  with  many  departments.  The 
treatment  of  the  subject  matter  also  varies,  in  the  former 
the  treatment  is  largely  historical,  in  the  latter  psychological. 

Reverting  to  the  table  it  will  be  seen  that  most  attention 
is  given  to  the  subjects   designated  historical,  the  history  of 


1 60        TRAINING  OF  SECOND  A  R  Y  TEA  CHERS  [  1 60 

education  leading  all  other  subjects.  Following  historical 
courses,  come  in  order  practical,  theoretical  and  ps}'cholog- 
ical  courses.  The  latter  group,  however,  is  only  partially 
represented  in  the  above  table,  since  courses  in  educational 
psychology  and  child  study  are  occasionally  offered  in  de- 
partments of  philosophy  and  psychology  which  are  not  in- 
cluded in  the  table.  The  subject  of  observation  and  practice- 
teaching  is  likewise  not  fully  represented,  for  in  many  cases 
it  is  combined  with  school  supervision  and  other  subjects 
and  is  not  made  a  separate  course. 

By  means  of  a   questionnaire,  the   views  of 

EDUCATIONAL  ^ 

REQUIREMENTS  ^^^7  ^"^  niorc  collcgc  and  university  professors 

FOR  HIGH      of  education   were   obtained    to    the   following 

SCHOOL        questions  pertaining  to  the  educational  require- 

TEACHERS  ,  i   •     i  i  i  , 

ments  of  high  school  teachers. 

In  general,  what  ought  to  be  expected  as  a  minimum  re- 
quirement, both  {a)  academic  and  {b)  professional  of 
teachers  for  secondary  education? 

{c)  In  the  above  minimum  professional  requirement  what 
do  you  consider  to  be  the  essential  subjects,  the  length  of 
time  to  be  devoted  to  each,  and  the  manner  of  treatment, 
i,  e.,  by  lecture  or  recitation,  by  text  or  topic,  etc? 

{d)  In  departments  of  education  where  the  instruction  is 
limited  to  a  single  professor,  what  work  can  be  undertaken 
to  best  advantage? 

A  few  professors  instead  of  answering  the  questions 
directly  referred  the  writer  to  literature  wherein  their 
thoughts  had  already  been  expressed,  but  by  far  the  larger 
number  answered  directly.  Quoting  briefly  from  a  number 
of  these  persons  we  are  able  to  present  the  following  im- 
portant data : 


iglj  PEDAGOGICAL  INSTRUCTION  t6i 

Arthur      Allin,     University     of      Colorado, 


VIEWS  OF  PRO-  Boulder. 

FESSORS  OF 
EDUCATION 


{a)   A  college   degree  with  specialization  in 
some    one    department.      Blanket    certificates 
should  not  be  offered  to  a  student. 

(^)  The  same,  largely,  as  in  that  for  elementary  training 
phis  foreign  secondary  school  systems,  method  of  teaching 
his  specialty,  and  advanced  psychology  and  sociology. 
{c)    I  cannot  answer  this  briefly. 
{d)   The  more  general  subjects  which  would  interest  all. 

John  A.  Bergstrom,  Indiana  University,  Bloomington. 

{a)  College  course  in  which  election  and  major  subjects 
are  permitted,  and  he  should  become  a  teacher  of  his  major 
subject. 

{b)   A  year's  pedagogical  work. 

{c)  A  general  course  for  high  school  teachers  in  the 
pedagogical  department;  the  teachers'  course  in  his  major 
subject,  and  an  observation  and  apprentice  course. 

{d)  I  regard  the  course  given  under  {c)  especially  for 
high  school  teachers,  as  just  about  the  minimum. 

Stratton  B.  Brooks,  University  of  Illinois,  Champaign. 

(«)  A  Bachelor's  degree. 

(b)   Two  years  pedagogy,  one  year  practice  teaching. 

{c)  (i)  Psychology  one-half  year,  lectures  and  text;  (2) 
Pedagogy,  historical,  theoretical  and  practical,  one  and  a 
half  years,  by  lectures  and  topics;  (3)  Teachers'  courses  in 
academic  subjects,  as  in  Latin,  etc. ;  (4)  Practice  teaching 
under  supervision,  one  year. 

{d)  I,  2  and  4  above.  The  other  professors  should 
attend  to  3. 

Elmer  E.  Brown,  University  of  California,  Berkeley. 

(^)   A  full  course  for  Bachelor's  degree  in  which  at  least 


1 62  TRAINING  OF  SE CONDAR  Y  TEA  CHERS  [162 

20  hours  a  week  for  one-half  year  are  devoted  to  the  candi- 
date's specialty. 

{b)  Twelve  hours  a  week  for  one-half  year  in  education, 
in  addition  to  a  course  in  general  psychology. 

(r)  3  or  4  hours  of  history  of  education,  a  like  amount  of 
general  theory  of  education,  including  the  introduction  to 
general  methodology,  the  study  of  at  least  one  system  of 
schools,  the  close  study  of  some  other  narrow  topic,  and  at 
some  point  in  the  course  there  should  be  an  introduction 
to  the  psychology  of  development,  broadly  considered. 
Methods  should  vary  according  to  the  individuality  of  the 
instructor. 

{d)  Only  a  part  of  that  indicated  above — the  part  he  is 
best  qualified  to  teach. 

Julia  E.  Buckley,  University  of  Chicago. 

{a)  This  is  a  very  broad  question.  Roughly  answered, 
I  should  say  («)  a  Bachelor's  degree;  for  higher  work  of  a 
superintendent  a  Doctor's  degree. 

{b)  A  knowledge  of  theory  as  implied  in  answer  to  the 
first  question,  history  of  education,  and  practice. 

{c)  (i)  Knowledge  of  fundamental  theory :  (2)  History 
of  education.  (3)  Practice.  The  time  and  treatment,  I 
think,  would  vary  with  individuals. 

(^d)  The  department  ought  to  ofifer  these  subjects  which 
I  have  indicated  successively  if  not  simultaneously. 

Nicholas  Murray  Butler,  Columbia  University,  New  York 
City. 

{a)   College  graduation. 

{b)  One  year  of  professional  study,  either  as  part  of  the 
college  work  or  supplementary  to  it. 

{c)  Principles  of  education  ;  History  of  education  ;  Edu- 
cational   organization    in    the    United    States    and    abroad ; 


163]  PEDAGOGICAL  INSTRUCTION  163 

Methods  of  presenting  an  allied  group  of  secondary  school 
subjects ;  Knowledge  of  contemporary  problems  in  second- 
ary education,  etc.  Manner  of  presentation  is  unimportant. 
It  de[)ends  on  the  particular  teacher. 

(^)  Principles  of  education  ;  History  of  education  ;  Con- 
temporary problems. 

W.  H.  Burnham,  Clark  University,  Worcester,  Mass. 

{a)  The  minimum  academic  requirement  should  be  the 
B.  A.  degree. 

{b)  The  minimum  professional  requirement  should  be 
one  year  of  professional  training,  and  also  one  year  of 
practice  teaching  under  supervision  would  be  desirable. 

{c)  Among  the  essential  subjects  are  the  physiology  and 
psychology  of  development  in  childhood,  and  adolescence, 
educational  psychology,  school  hygiene,  and  a  general  out- 
line of  the  aims  and  principles  of  education,  with  a  brief 
course  in  the  history  and  organization  of  education.  The 
questions  of  method,  whether  by  lecture,  recitation,  text,  etc., 
must  be  determined  by  the  special  conditions  of  the  locality. 

{d)  The  answer  to  this  is  relative  to  the  instructor  and 
the  school.  In  college  the  instructor  should  use  those  parts 
of  the  field  that  he  is  best  able  to  treat,  and  the  courses 
should  be  culture  subjects  rather  than  directly  practical.  In 
Normal  Schools  the  character  of  the  work  must  be  de- 
termined with  regard  to  the  preparation  of  the  students, 
other  instruction  given  in  the  school,  and  so  on ;  but  it  , 
should  include  courses  in  child  study,  school  hygiene,  edu- 
cational psychology,  and  the  most  important  parts  of  the 
history  and  general  principles  of  education. 

Ellwood  P.  Cubberley,  Leland  Stanford  University,  Cali- 
fornia. 

{a)  Not  less  than  the  A.  B,  degree,  with  particular  em- 
phasis on  one  or  more  lines. 


1 64  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [164 

{b)  15  to  18  hours  of  educational  work  of  such  a  nature 
as  will  give  some  skill  in  applying  principles,  and  will  tend 
to  remove  the  drudgery  side. 

(r)  The  subject  matter  is  less  important  than  the  per- 
sonality of  the  instructor.  The  same  is  true  of  plans  of 
teaching.  There  should  be  some  general  course  which  will 
introduce  the  student  to  the  work  of  teaching — its  aims, 
methods,  and  ideals. 

(</)  The  work  he  can  do  the  best;  the  work  which  will 
tell  most  in  the  future  teaching  of  his  students. 

Ellor  E.  Carlisle,  Wellesley  College,  Mass. 

(«)  One  course  three  hours  weekly  per  year  (I  empha- 
size the  "  minimum  "). 

(^)  I  think  the  professional  training  can  be  gotten  in  a 
semester  of  five  months,  no  other  work  being  carried  during 
that  period. 

(c)  Educational  principles,  approached  from  an  histori- 
cal or  scientific  point  of  view;  applied  psychology;  material 
and  method  of  education.    Lecture  and  seminar,  I  should  say. 

(^)  If  the  department  is  without  access  to  an  educational 
laboratory,  as  it  is  presumably  in  such  cases,  I  think  the 
anthropological,  biological,  psychological  aspects  of  educa- 
tion should  be  presented. 

A.  Caswell  Ellis,  University  of  Texas,  Austin. 

(a)  and  (^)  Space  too  limited  to  answer;  I  am  doubtful 
in  my  own  mind  about  it. 

(f)  History  of  education — lecture,  texts  and  theses; 
Psychology  —  especially  of  developmental  stages ;  and 
Physiology — lecture,  laboratory,  text  and  individual  theses. 

(^d)  History  of  education;  psychology,  including  child 
study;  a  short  course  of  practical  "Management  and 
method." 


16^1  PEDAGOGICAL  INSTRUCTION  165 

F.  C.  French,  Vassar  College,  Poughkeepsie,  New  York. 

(«)  A  good  college  course.     (^). 

(c)  I  can  not  say  that  I  should  regard  any  professional 
study  as  absolutely  essential  for  a  'secondary  teacher,  but  I 
believe  a  year's  study  of  education  highly  advisable — a 
semester  3  hours  a  week  to  each,  psychology  as  applied  to 
education  and  the  history  of  education,  with  considerable 
incidental  attention  both  semesters  to  the  philosophy  of 
education. 

(^)  The  above  together  with  a  study  of  the  educational 
systems  and  methods  in  England,  France,  and  Germany. 

J.  P.  Gordy,  New  York  University  School  of  Pedagogy. 

(a)  The  answer  to  (^)  is  difificult  to  specify.  I  will  only 
say  that  a  secondary  teacher  should  always  be  to  some 
extent  a  specialist. 

{b)  He  should  have  made  a  general  survey  of  the  history 
of  education,  of  the  science  of  education,  and  should  have 
some  special  training  in  the  methods  of  teaching  his  own 
subjects. 

{c)  I  have  mentioned  the  subjects  above.  As  to  time,  3 
or  4  hours  a  week  for  a  semester,  for  the  third.  As  to 
method  I  prefer  a  condensation  of  the  text-book  and  con- 
versational method. 

{d)   History  and  science  of  education. 

Paul  H.  Hanus,  Harvard  University,  Cambridge,  Mass. 

{a)  A  college  education  covering  a  general  training,  and 
special  training  in  some  one  field  (several  related  subjects, 
and  some  one. subject  in  particular). 

(^)  One  year  of  elementary  psychology  and  logic ;  one 
year  of  ethics  (including  "social  ethics");  one  year  of  the 
history  of  education;  one  year  of  educational  theory;  one- 
half  year  (fifty  exercises)  of  practice  teaching  under  direc- 


1 66       TRAINING  OF  SECONDARE    TEACHERS  [i66 

tion,  accompanied  by  appropriate  instruction  in  the  methods 
of  teaching  the  candidate's  subject  or  group  of  subjects; 
one  year  of  the  study  of  city  school  systems.  All  these 
subjects  not  less  than  two  hours  each  per  week. 

(yC)  For  the  most  part  this  has  already  been  answered 
under  (^)  and  (^).  All  three  suggested  methods,  together 
with  observation,  discussion,  and  thesis. 

(^)  History  of  education;  educational  theory;  study  of 
school  systems. 

B.  A.  Hinsdale,  late  of  the  University  of  Michigan,  Ann 
Arbor. 

(«  and  h')  I  have  discussed  this  subject  in  the  Report  of 
the  Committee  on  the  Certification  of  University  and  Col- 
lege Graduates  for  teachers  to  which  I  refer  you.  (The 
School  Review  for  June,  1899,  G.  W.  A.  L.) 

{c)  \  think  the  report  just  referred  to  substantially  covers 
this  question  also.  I  understand  you  refer  to  pedagogical 
studies  in  the  college  or  university.  I  am  in  favor  of  em- 
ploying all  means  of  instruction  enumerated,  the  lecture,  the 
recitation,  the  text,  the  topic. 

i^d)  In  such  a  case  the  pedagogical  instruction  should  in- 
clude the  three  lines,  theory,  practice,  and  history.  Of 
course  the  tract  can  not  be  very  wide  in  any  one  of  these 
cases.  If  the  main  courses  were  not  made  too  heavy,  time 
could  be  found  for  child  study,  experimental  matters,  etc. 

Walter  Ballou  Jacobs,  Brown  University,  Providence,  R.  I. 

(a)  A  college  degree. 

(J)')  One  year  of  professional  training  in  addition  to  col- 
lege degree, 

ic)  Theory,  practice  (a  course  in  psychology  and  ethics 
should  be  required  for  admission),  school  hygiene,  school 
systems,  and  school  management.     (^). 


167]  PEDAGOGICAL  INSTRUCTION  167 

E.  G.  Lancaster,  Colorado  College,  Colorado  Springs. 

(«)   Four  years  in  college. 

{b)  Two  years  in  professional  work  with  one  (of  the  two) 
spent  half  in  regular  teaching  under  criticism. 

(r)  Four  hours  of  nature  work,  biology,  etc.,  one  year; 
four  hours  per  week  on  the  history  of  education,  one  year; 
Four  hours  on  child  study,  one  year;  Two  hours,  one  year, 
adolescence  with  reading;  psychology,  four  hours,  one  year; 
hygiene,  and  the  study  of  practical  schools,  etc. 

(^d)  Psychology,  history  of  education,  child  study  and 
observation  of  methods  if  not  real  teaching. 

J.  J.  McConnell,  University  of  Iowa,  Iowa  City. 

(ytt)  The  academic  course  should  include  a  reasonably 
liberal  treatment  of  the  staple  high  school  subjects  as  these 
subjects  are  represented  in  collegiate  courses.  Too  many 
college  students  fit  themselves  for  work  in  a  narrow  field. 
I  think  that,  as  a  rule,  those  who  take  a  general  course  with 
reasonable  specialization  in  the  branches  they  expect  to 
teach  get  on  better  than  those  who  devote  themselves 
mainly  to  one  or  two  objects. 

{b)  The  professional  course  should  cover  one  year  of  five 
hours  a  week  as  a  minimum. 

(^)  For  students  who  have  had  no  experience  as  teachers  : 
(i)  A  general  text-book  course  in  which  the  laws  of  mind 
and  mind  development,  and  the  laws  of  teaching  are  taken 
up,  minimum  time  twelve  weeks,  ought  to  be  longer;  (2)  , 
Educational  doctrines  and  principles,  three  hours  a  week 
for  two  terms  (this  course  should  include  an  exposition  of 
the  theories  and  doctrines  that  have  given  direction  to 
teaching,  and  should  also  include  their  historical  relations, 
lectures  and  reports)  ;  (3)  secondary  education,  two  terms, 
two  hours  a  week,  the  high  school  curriculum  and  the  high 
school  organization  and  administration.     So  far  as  detailed 


1 68        TRAINING  OF  SE CONDAR  Y  TEA  CHERS  [  1 68 

methods  of  teaching  are  concerned  in  this  course,  the  var- 
ious departments  of  the  college  or  university  which  are 
represented  in  the  high  school  should  give  suitable  courses. 
The  method  should  be  by  lectures  and  reports.  No  school, 
so  far  as  I  know,  gives  an  arrangement  like  this. 

(^d)  History  of  education,  two  hours  during  the  year; 
philosophy  of  education  and  secondary  education,  the  equiv- 
alent of  three  hours  during  the  year;  methods  of  teaching, 
two  hours  during  the  year;  school  organization  and  admin- 
istration, one  hour  during  the  year;  seminary,  two  hours 
during  the  year,  a  total  of  ten  hours.  The  organization  of 
courses  as  to  time  could  be  modified  to  meet  the  require- 
ments of  the  situation, 

Frank  M.  McMurry,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  Uni- 
versity, New  York. 

(«)   College  graduation. 

{b)   At  least  one  year  of  professional  study. 

(<:)  History  of  education,  two  hours  per  week  for  one 
year;  general  method,  three  hours  per  week  for  one  year; 
special  method,  four  hours  per  week  for  one  year;  psychol- 
ogy, three  hours  per  week  for  one  year ;  practice  teaching, 
three  hours  per  week  for  one  year.  Plan  of  treatment,  lec- 
tures, text  and  discussions. 

(^)  Perhaps,  history  of  education,  general  method, 
psychology,  and  practice-teaching,  as  given  above. 

D.  R.  Major,  Ohio  State  University,  Columbus. 

{a)  A  college  degree,  B.  A.  or  B.  S. 

(d)  One  year  devoted  entirely  to  professional  study. 

(c)  History  of  education ;  text  with  collateral  reading, 
recitation,  free  discussion,  and  lectures  when  the  mood 
strikes  you,  one  year  of  three  hours  a  week.  (2)  The  sec- 
ondary   school,    foreign    and    domestic    history,    purpose, 


1 69]  PEDAGOGICAL  INSTRUCTION  169 

Studies,  methods  ;  one  year  two  hours  a  week.  (3)  Presup- 
posing a  ground-work  in  psychology,  logic,  ethics,  I  would 
recommend  a  year  of  child  study  with  special  reference  to 
the  phenomena  of  adolescence,  two  periods  a  week.  This 
course  should  include  a  good  deal  of  anatomy  and  physi- 
ology, especially  of  the  brain  and  nervous  system,  emphasis 
on  hygiene  with  subjects  usually  taught  in  child  study 
courses.  The  remainder  of  the  time  should  be  given  to 
observation,  assisting,  and  practicing  in  some  one  or  more 
subjects  under  expert  supervision. 

(i/)  It  seems  to  me  that  the  three  lines  of  work  indicated 
in  the  preceding  paragraph  could  well  be  handled  by  a 
single  professor. 

D.  E.  Phillips,  University  of  Denver,  Colorado. 

(«)  College  graduation,  {b)  Two  years  of  professional 
study,  being  the  last  two  years  of  the  college  course. 

(r)  Pedagogy,  theoretical  and  practical,  three  hours  for 
two  years ;  psychology,  three  hours  for  two  years ;  child 
study,  three  hours  for  one  year;  philosophy,  three  hours 
for  one  year;  all  the  methods  named  should  have  a  place 
varying  with  the  size  of  class,  needs,  interests,  etc. 

(dT)  Theories  and  science  of  education,  educational  psy- 
chology, psychological  basis  of  methods,  child  study  with 
practical  phases. 

Arvin  S.  Olin,  University  of  Kansas,  La^^rence. 

(«)  The  work  required  for  an  A.  B.  degree. 

(^)  About  300  hours  of  professional  work  (probably 
equivalent  to  16  university  hours,  /.  <?.,  16  hours  of  recita- 
tions a  week  for  one  semester. — G.  W.  A.  L.). 

(t:)  History  of  education,  100  hours;  Organization,  man- 
agement and  methods,  100  hours;  Philosophy  of  education, 
100  hours.  Outlines  of  topics  (authorities)  and  library 
readings. 


170  TRAINIXG  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  ^IJO 

(^)  As  above:  perhaps  also  courses  in  comparative 
study  of  educational  systems,  school  supervision,  educa- 
tional theory. 

M.  V.  O'Shea,  University  of  Wisconsin,  Madison. 

(a)  A  pupil  should  be  required  to  have  specialized  in  the 
subject  which  he  is  to  teach.  In  general  he  should  have 
completed  successfully  twenty-five  hours  work,  as  these 
terms  are  usually  understood  in  universities,  in  any  subject 
before  he  is  entitled  to  teach  it.  (b)  In  addition,  he  should 
have  completed  a  teacher's  course  in  the  subject  which 
he  is  to  teach,  conducted  by  the  special  professor  in  the 
university. 

(c)  Three  hours  should  be  given  to  educational  psycho- 
logy, two  hours  to  what  I  may  call  mental  development, 
which  would  include  a  study  of  adolescent  phenomena,  of 
mental  fatigue,  of  individuality,  etc.  Three  hours  should  be 
given  to  the  principles  of  method  and  management,  and  two 
hours  to  the  history  of  education.  I  should  say  the  method 
of  presenting  this  work  would  not  differ  from  effective 
methods  in  any  other  subject  and  this  would  be  a  combina- 
tion of  the  lecture  and  recitation  method.  If  facilities  will 
allow  it  I  think  it  will  be  best  to  have  the  work  in  education 
centering  around  a  model  school  so  that  it  will  be  as  con- 
crete as  possible.  The  greatest  need  it  seems  to  me  m 
the  study  of  education  is  opportunity  for  the  application  of 
the  laboratory  method. 

(d)  I  should  think  the  best  work  that  could  be  done  by  a 
single  professor  would  be  to  conduct  courses  in  principles  of 
method  and  management,  in  mental  development,  and  in 
history  of  education,  making  such  uses  of  the  high  schools 
in  the  vicinity  as  time  and  circumstances  will  allow.  If  any 
work  must  suffer,  it  seems  to  me  the  theoretical  could  best 
be  neglected. 


171]  PEDAGOGICAL  INSTRUCTION  I7I 

Ruric  N.  Roark,  Kentucky  State  College,  Lexington. 

(a)  A  college  diploma. 

(b)  One  year  theoretical  study,  one  year  practice  in 
secondary  model  school. 

(c)  Psychology,  methodology,  management,  and  the  his- 
tory of  education.  All  methods  should  be  used,  the  lec- 
ture least  of  all. 

(d)  Theory  founded  upon  the  four  subjects  named  above. 

Wm.  O.  Rogers,  Tulane  University,  New  Orleans,  La. 
(a)  A  college  education  or  its  equivalent. 
(d)  Some  knowledge  of  the  history  of  education,  and  a 
good  teaching  equipment  in  philosophy  and  psychology, 

(c)  It  depends  upon  professor  and  student.  "  Mark 
Hopkins  at  one  end  of  his  log  and  the  student  at  the  other 
making  a  college,"  is  as  applicable  as  familiar.  Lecture  and 
recitation  should  be  combined  with  assurance  that  the 
student  does  his  or  her  share  of  the  work.  Topic  is  better 
than  text,  at  least  should  precede  it. 

(d)  Discussion  of  educational  problems  from  philosophical 
and  psychological  bases. 

Jas.  E.  Russell,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University, 
New  York. 

(a)  A  Bachelor's  degree  and  specialization  in  the  sub- 
jects to  be  taught. 

(d)  Courses  in  the  history  of  education,  principles  and 
practice  of  teaching. 

(c)  See  article,  "The  training  of  teachers  for  secondary 
schools,"  Educational  Review,  April,  1899. 

(^)  History  and  philosophy  of  education  ;  Psychology  and 
its  applications  ;  School  administration  ;  Theory  of  teaching. 

W.  G.  Smith,  Smith  college,  Northampton,  Mass. 
(^)  The  work  of  a  good  B.  A.  degree,  with  distinction  in 
the  subjects  which  the  candidate  expects  to  teach  afterwards. 


1 72  TRAINING  OF  SECOND AR  Y  TEA  CHERS  [172 

(^)  Instruction  in  the  theory  of  education  together  with 
practice  in  teaching,  covering  a  period  of  two  years. 

(^)  The  following  subjects  should  form  part  of  the  pro- 
fessional instruction  if  not  taken  in  previous  college  course : 
(l)  Psychology,  theoretical  and  experimental,  3  or  4  hours 
a  week  for  one  year;  (2)  Ethics,  3  or  4  hours  for  a  semes- 
ter;   (3)  History  of  philosophy,  3  or  4  hours  for  a  semester; 

(4)  Economics  and  sociology,  3  or  4  hours  for  a  semester; 

(5)  Physiology,  3  or  4  hours  a  week  for  a  year;  (6)  His- 
tory, general  and  special,  3  or  4  hours  for  a  year ;  English 
language  and  literature,  lecture  and  recitation. 

{d)  In  such  a  case  I  believe  the  best  course  would  be  to 
give  attention  to  the  history  of  education  in  its  broadest 
sense  and  to  the  more  theoretical  parts  of  the  subject.  The 
more  practical  parts  would  be  learned  in  school  later. 

John  W.  Stearns,  University  of  Wisconsin,  Madison. 

(«)  College  graduation,  with  special  reference  to  specific 
lines  of  teaching. 

(Jj)  This  will  increase  as  time  goes  on;  now  it  should  be 
12/5  courses  (12  hours  per  week)  for  one  semester  (half  year). 

(c)  Psychology,  3  hours ;  History  of  education,  3  hours ; 
Logic,  2  hours;  Principles  of  teaching,  3  hours.  This  it 
seems  to  me  is  the  ordinary  minimum  course,  to  which  I 
would  add  educational  systems,  supervision,  etc.,  as  circum- 
stances permit.  All  methods  of  presentation  should  be 
used.     (^)  Omitted. 

J.  Richard  Street,  Syracuse  University,  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 

{a)  A  four  years'  Arts  course  (B.  A.). 

(^)  One  year  of  college  pedagogy. 

(^)  History  of  education ;  Philosophy  of  education ; 
Psychology  as  applied  to  education ;  School  systems ; 
School  organization ;  Methods  as  applied  to  special  sub- 
jects of  secondary  course ;   Practice-teaching.     There  is  no 


173]  PEDAGOGICAL  INSTRUCTION  1 73 

justification  of  the  lecture  method.  The  students  and  not 
the  teacher  must  do  the  work.  Topics  with  text  and  refer- 
ences, 

(^)  The  study  of  general  principles. 

Andrew  F.  West,  Princeton  University,  Princeton,  N.  J. 

(«)  A  Bachelor's  degree  from  a  good  college,  preferably 
Bachelor  of  Arts. 

(^)  Two  years  of  graduate  professional  study  of  teaching. 

(^)  A  very  full  course  in  the  history,  theory  and  insti- 
tutes of  education;  special  acquaintance  with  education  in 
our  century  and  country;  a  study  of  the  methods  of  teach- 
ing all  the  secondary  studies ;  and  a  study  of  school  man- 
agement, school  law,  etc. 

(d^  The  history,  theory  and  institutes  of  education. 

A.  H.  Yoder,  University  of  Washington,  Seattle. 

{a)  The  ideal  would  be  a  college  degree  in  a  good  school 
with  at  least  one  year  of  advanced  work  in  another  institu- 
tion, some  travel  if  possible. 

{b)  History  of  education  in  its  best  sense ;  familiarity 
with  best  ethical  literature  ;  the  pedagogical  sciences,  anthro- 
pology, psychology,  physiology. 

(^)  Two  years  should  be  the  minimum  time  devoted  to 
professional  work;  I  should  like  more,  alternated  with  some 
teaching  in  elementary  grades  or  as  an  assistant.  I  am  a 
believer  in  apprenticeship.  History  of  Education — well,  I 
can't  say  about  methods  of  presentation  ;  I  like  all,  but  would 
keep  away  from  lectures  mostly,  they  leave  too  little  for  the 
student  to  do. 

{d)  History  of  education ;  literary  interpretation;  study 
of  ethics  if  allowable ;  work  in  science  should  be  done  in 
conjunction  with  regular  science  departments.  There  should 
be  some  school  inspection  by  way  of  excursions. 


174  TRAINING  OF  SF.CONDARY  TEACHERS  [174 

We  have  probably  given  the  views  of  a  sufficiently  large 
number  of  representative  persons  to  furnish  intelligent  guid- 
ance to  any  one  interested  in  the  arrangement  of  a  suitable 
curriculum  for  a  department  of  education.  To  the  above 
answers  we  have  added  enough  more  from  the  entire  list  to 
make  fifty  in  all  on  every  question  submitted.  These  when 
collated  show  the  following  results: 

In  general,  what  ought  to  be  expected  as  a  minimum  re- 
quirement, both  («)  academic  and  (Jj)  professional,  of  teach- 
ers for  secondary  education? 

Regarding  the  first  part  of  this  question  the 

ACADEMIC      opinion    is    almost    unanimous    that    the    high 

REQUIREMENT         ^  ° 

school  teacher  should  be  a  college  graduate, 
and  this  opinion  is  becoming  quite  generally  shared  by  the 
public.  It  is  also  in  accord  with  the  thought  expressed  in 
the  Report  of  the  Committee  of  Fifteen,  under  the  Report  of 
the  Sub-committee  of  Five  on  the  training  of  teachers,  which 
says,  "It  is  a  widely  prevalent  doctrine,  to  which  the  cus- 
toms of  our  best  schools  conform,  that  teachers  of  elemen- 
tary schools  should  have  a  secondary  or  high  school  educa- 
tion, and  that  teachers  of  high  schools  should  have  a 
collegiate  education.  Your  committee  believe  that  these 
are  the  minimum  acquirements  that  can  generally  be 
accepted,  that  the  scholarship,  culture,  and  power  gained  by 
four  years  of  study  in  advance  of  the  pupils  are  not  too 
much  to  be  rightfully  demanded." 

Two  other  thoughts  are  made  prominent  in  the  academic 
requirements  of  the  high  school  teacher.  First,  that  he 
should  have  a  broad  general  education,  hence  a  B.  A.  rather 
than  a  B.  S.  degree ;  unless  the  latter  is  made  to  cover  an 
equally  broad  culture  foundation.  Second,  he  should  be  a 
specialist  in  the  subjects  he  expects  to  teach ;  not  a  special- 
ist in  the  narrow  sense  of  having  his  knowledge  confined  to 
a  single  subject,  but  a  specialist  in   the  broader  sense   of 


17^]  PEDA  G OGICA L  INS TR UC TION  I  7 5 

being  especially  strong  in  one  line  after  having  had  careful 
preparation  in  several  others.  No  one  familiar  with  the 
present  demands  on  the  high  school  teacher  will  doubt  the 
reasonableness  of  the  above  requirements. 

{b]  Under  the  head  of  professional  require- 

PROFESSIONAL  .       iU  -1  •       V  r   i-l-  Ui.         -TV. 

ments  there  is  less  unanimity  of  thought.      Ihe 

REQUIREMENT  _  ° 

opinion  that  special  professional  study  is  neces- 
sary for  the  proper  training  of  secondary  as  well  as  of  ele- 
mentary teachers  is  becoming  more  and  more  firmly 
established.  This  is  shown  by  the  rapidly  increasing  num- 
ber of  educational  departments  established  in  colleges  and 
universities ;  it  is  further  shown  by  the  popularity  of  these 
departments  with  the  student  body,  especially  with  those 
students  who  intend  to  teach,  when  manned  by  professors  on 
a  par  in  their  training  and  ability  with  the  professors  of 
other  departments. 

As  a  further  illustration  bearing  on  the  same  point,  an- 
swers were  obtained  from  over  one  hundred  city  superin- 
tendents to  the  following  questions:  "In  selecting  a  new 
teacher,  other  things  being  equal,  would  you  prefer  {a)  a 
normal  school  graduate,  ib)  a  college  graduate  with,  or  [c] 
without  professional  training?"  The  results  show  that 
for  the  grades  (elementary  schools)  52  per  cent,  prefer 
normal  school  graduates,  44  per  cent,  prefer  college  grad- 
uates with  professional  training,  and  4  per  cent,  prefer 
college  graduates  but  do  not  consider  professional  training 
necessary.  For  high  school  teachers  84  per  cent,  prefer 
college  graduates  with  professional  training,  10  per  cent. 
college  graduates  without  professional  training,  "The  teacher 
is  born  not  made,"  and  6  per  cent,  prefer  normal  school 
graduates  because  "  They  are  more  efficient  teachers," 
"  waste  less  time,"  and  "  make  up  for  lack  of  scholarship  by 
skill  in  teaching."  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  younger 
city  superintendents  are  almost  unanimous  in  their  preference 


IjQ  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [176 

for  the  professionally  trained  college  graduate.  Among  the 
reasons  given  are :  "  It  is  too  expensive  to  train  teachers  in 
the  school-room ;  "  "  My  experience  shows  that  the  profes- 
sionally trained  teacher  is  at  least  25  per  cent,  more  eco- 
nomical and  efficient;"  "Clearer  insight  into  fundamental 
principles  upon  which  true  teaching  is  based  ;  "  "  Breadth  and 
depth  of  knowledge,  higher  ideals  and  greater  efficiency;  " 
"  Less  easily  annoyed  by  the  students  and  more  skillful  in 
imparting  knowledge." 

While  the  thought  is  quite  general  that  teachers  should 
have  special  professional  training,  the  amount  of  such  train- 
ing is  still  an  open  question.  In  the  data  given  above  it 
varies  from  a  minimum  of  ten  hours  (10/5  university  credit 
points)  purely  pedagogical  work  to  a  maximum  of  two  years 
of  professional  training.  In  the  latter  case  the  professional 
course  is  usually  made  to  cover  at  least  twenty-five  hours  of 
study  on  the  academic  subjects  that  the  student  expects  to 
teach.  The  average  amount  of  purely  professional  study 
required  of  students  for  the  university  teachers'  certificates, 
is  usually  given  at  from  fifteen  to  eighteen  hours.  This  may 
or  may  not  include  a  course  in  psychology  oft'ered  by  the 
department  of  philosophy  and  a  special  methods  course 
offered  by  the  department  in  which  the  student  has  his 
major  subject.  The  professional  work  is  more  often  spread 
over  the  last  two  years  of  the  college  course.  By  some  it  is 
thought  preferable  to  have  it  deferred  until  the  last  year  in 
college,  or  taken  up  as  graduate  work,  and  made  a  matter 
of  concentration  and  intensive  study. 

[c)  "  In  the  above  minimum  professional  re- 
THE  ESSENTIAL  quij-ement,    what    do    you    consider  to  be  the 

SUBJECTS  ^ 

essential    subject?"     (d)  "In    departments    of 
education  where  the   instruction  is  limited  to  a  single  pro- 
fessor, what  work  can  be  undertaken  to  best  advantage?" 
A  summary  of  the  answers  to  these  questions  can  prob- 


177J 


PEDA  GOGICAL  INSTR UCTION 


177 


ably  be  shown  to  best  advantage  if  placed  in  a  single  table 
as  given  below. 


Table  II 


Subjects  of  Study. 


History  of  Education . . . 
Educational  Psychology. 

General  Method 

Theory  of  Education  . . . 

Practice-teaching 

Child  Study   

Philosophy  of  Education 

Special  Method 

School  Management 

Educational  Systems  . . . 
Principles  of  Education. 

Ethics 

Adolescence 

Observation  of  Teaching 

School  Hygiene 

Logic 

School  Organization — . 
School  Supervision  .... 
Mental  Development    . . 


S  <J 

S:^ 

u-'a 

v^  "O 

0  c 

0  c 

.    3 

.    3 

C  "O 

C  "O 

u   g 

0  s 

V-    rt 

u    n! 

to    s 

t)    q 

^ 

Pi 

90 

82 

66 

SO 

42 

36 

26 

26 

26 

20 

24 

24 

24 

22 

20 

18 

18 

16 

18 

12 

18 

6 

18 

4 

16 

.. 

12 

12 

12 

4 

12 

.. 

10 

6 

10 

8 

10 

6 

Subjects  of  Study. 


School  Administration  . 

Science  of  Education  . . 

Educational  Ideals  .... 

Physiology 

Biology    

Sociology 

Contemporary  Problems 

Genetic  Psychology. . . . 

Institutes  of  Education. 

Educational  Doctrines  . 

School  Law 

Economics 

Anthropology 

Number  of  subjects 
named 

Average  number  of  sub- 
jects named  by  each 
person 


OJ  0 

^'^ 

».  "O 

0  c 

.    3 

CT3 

u  <u 

"  e 

w    rt 

(u  n 

0- 

8 

8 

8 

8 

8 

6 

6 

6 

4 

4 

2 

2 

2 

32 

5-44 

V-  -a 

"  a 

P-t 


3.7 


The  above  table  represents  the  tabulation  of  fifty  answers 
to  each  of  the  questions  {c)  and  (^).  Should  we  group  these 
subjects  under  the  heads,  historical,  theoretical,  practical, 
and  psychological,  as  indicated  in  table  I,  omitting  a  few 
subjects  difficult  to  classify,  we  have  under  {c)  essential  sub- 
jects— practical  32  per  cent.,  psychological  27  per  cent., 
historical  23  per  cent.,  theoretical  18  per  cent.;  and  under 
{d)  the  essential  subjects  to  be  ofifered  in  departments  lim- 
ited to  a  single  instructor — practical  34  per  cent.,  historical 
26  per  cent.,  psychological  21  per  cent.,  and  theoretical  19 
per  cent.     It   is  probable  that  under  both  [c]  and  {d)  the 


1 7  8  TRAhXlNG  OF  SE  CONDAR  Y  TEA  CHERS  T  i  -  g 

subjects  named  are  thought  to  be  in  every  case  the  most 
vital  in  the  professional  training  of  secondary  teachers. 
But  under  {d)  the  teaching  force  was  reduced  to  a  minimum 
which  tended  to  modify  the  answers  in  a  marked  degree, 
and  to  bring  out  into  clearer  relief  the  more  essential  sub- 
jects. The  subjects  grouped  under  the  head  practical  re- 
ceive in  both  cases  the  most  attention,  then  follow  in  order, 
historical,  psychological,  theoretical.  The  psychological 
group  receives  much  less  attention  under  id)  than  under  (r), 
while  the  other  groups  receive  more  attention  under  {d). 
A  number  of  subjects,  as  adolescence,  logic,  educational 
ideals,  biology,  sociology,  etc.,  which  are  thought  to  be 
essential  under  (<:},  are  entirely  omitted  under  \d).  There 
are  thirty-two  subjects  in  all  named  as  essential  under  (^), 
and  twenty-one  under  {d),  but  the  number  would  be  con- 
siderably reduced  if  we  should  combine  such  topics  as 
school  organization,  administration,  supervision,  and  man- 
agement under  one  head,  which  was  probably  more  often 
intended.  The  average  number  of  subjects  named  by  one 
person  was  5.44  under  [c)  and  3.7  under  [d).  The  average 
amount  of  time  allotted  to  the  different  courses  when  desig- 
nated is  as  follows:  History  of  education,  5^  hours;  Edu- 
cational psychology,  4  hours;  Methods  of  instruction,  3 
hours;  Theory  and  philosophy  of  education,  4  hours; 
Child  study,  4  hours;  Practice-teaching,  4j^  hours;  and 
School  management,  etc.,  3  hours. 

The  difl'erences  in  results  between  I  and  II 

COMPARISON  OF  .  4.-        1       1  1       j  i,.i  1^.1 

are     not     particularly    marked,    although    the 

TABLES  I  AND  II  r  y  '  & 

former  represents  the  principal  courses  sched- 
uled by  departments  of  education  for  the  past  ten  years, 
while  the  latter  represents  the  present  thought  of  professors 
of  education  regarding  the  essential  subjects  in  the  profes- 
sional training  of  secondary  teachers.  The  most  maiked 
difference  is  in  the  psychological  group,  especially  in  edu- 


179]  PEDAGOGICAL  INSTRUCTION  179 

cational  psychology,  which  receives  much  more  attention  in 
the  second  table.  This  is  probably  due  to  the  fact  that 
while  educational  psychology  is  considered  essential  in  the 
professional  training  of  teachers,  it  is  sometimes  ofifered  by 
the  department  of  philosophy  (more  frequently  so  in  earlier 
years),  and  on  this  account  has  not  always  been  included  in 
table  I.  The  history  of  education  is  the  one  subject  that 
receives  the  greatest  attention  throughout. 

From  this  study  it  is  evident  that  the  subjects  which  are 
thought  to  be  of  most  importance  in  the  professional  training 
of  secondary  teachers  are  as  follows :  History  of  education, 
with  a  probable  course  in  Educational  systems  foreign  and 
domestic);  Educational  psychology,  including  Child  study; 
Theory  of  education,  including  the  science  and  philosophy 
of  education  ;  Methodology,  including  both  general  and  spec- 
ial methods;  School  administration,  including  organization, 
supervision,  and  management;  and  Observation  of  actual 
school  work  and  practice-teaching.  An  outline  of  work 
strong  enough  as  it  stands,  but  one  which  will  probably  be 
strengthened  by  the  addition  of  a  seminary  course  for  the 
study  of  original  problems,  and  a  course  in  the  study  of  cur- 
rent educational  literature  which  will  be  found  both  interest- 
ing and  valuable. 

We  have  now  set  forth  the  zvhat  in  the  pro- 

PROFITABLE  .... 

STUDIES  AS  Sessional  traming  of  teachers  as  seen  from  the 
JUDGED  FROM  Standpoint  of  the  university  instructor.  It 
THE  student's  would  bc  of  interest  if  we  could  add  the  views 

STANDPOINT 

of  university  students  regarding  the  professional 
courses  which  they  had  found  most  helpful  to  them.  To 
obtain  the  data  which  would  give  accurately  such  informa- 
tion, freed  from  the  many  sources  of  error,  would  be  an  ex- 
ceedingly difficult  task,  and  must  be  left  with  the  mere  sug- 
gestion for  a  future  study. 

In  reference  to  the  value  of  any  study  more  depends  no 


1 80  TRAlxVING  OF  SECOND AR  Y  TEA  CHERS  [  i  go 

doubt  upon  the  teacher  and  the  particular  nature  of  the 
student  himself  than  upon  the  subject  matter.  Any  subject 
taught  by  a  good  teacher  who  has  faith  in  his  work  will  be 
found  interesting  and  profitable  by  students.  The  peculiar 
environment,  together  with  Ihe  advantage  and  disadvantage 
in  the  scheduled  arrangement  of  the  time  and  place  of  the 
different  courses,  influences  materially  the  choice  of  students. 
No  one  of  the  essential  subjects  given  above  is  found  to  be 
universally  popular,  and  on  the  other  hand  courses  in  educa- 
tional theory  and  practice,  and  in  principles  of  education 
which  as  a  rule  do  not  attract  large  bodies  of  students, 
become  when  conducted  by  such  men  as  Nicholas  Murray 
Butler  of  Columbia,  or  EUwood  P.  Cubberley  of  Leland 
Stanford,  the  most  popular  courses  of  the  department. 
Notwithstanding  all  this  there  are  some  courses,  if  we  take 
into  consideration  many  institutions,  that  are  attended  on  the 
average  by  far  more  students  than  others.  Even  in  the 
same  institution,  where  one  person  conducts  all  the  profes- 
sional courses  the  students  are  attracted  to  one  subject  more 
than  to  another. 

University  students  as  a  class  are  keen  critics.  They  take 
a  common  sense  view  of  life  and  are  desirous  of  the  best. 
The  number  who  are  looking  for  easy  courses  is  by  no 
means  large.  The  great  majority  are  deep  in  earnest; 
they  have  no  time  to  waste,  but  they  want  value  received 
for  the  money  and  energy  which  they  are  putting  forth. 
They  want  food  and  when  it  is  to  be  had  in  the  university 
they  will  find  it.  The  newer  students  get  their  cue  from  the 
older  ones  and  no  course  will  long  attract  from  the  mere 
sound  of  the  title.  When,  therefore,  large  numbers  of 
students  are  attracted,  year  after  year,  to  one  course  rather 
than  to  another,  it  must  be  on  account  of  some  intrinsic 
value  either  in  the  subject  itself  or  in  the  manner  of  its  pre- 
sentation. 


i8t]  pedagogical  instruction  i8i 

If  we  could  furnish  the  reader  with  the  number  of  students 
who  have  been  in  attendance  on  all  courses  offered  during 
the  past  year  by  college  and  university  departments  of 
education  it  might  furnish  a  clue  to  the  thought  we  have 
under  consideration.  Such  information  is  seldom  given  in 
the  published  records,  and  must  be  obtained  through  corre- 
spondence. From  fifteen  universities  furnishing  such  data 
the  average  number  of  students  to  the  class  in  the  more 
important  subjects  was  as  follows :  Theory  of  education, 
including  courses  in  the  philosophy  and  the  principles 
of  education,  ^2  ;  history  of  education,  50;  child  study,  43  ; 
educational  psychology,  38;  methods  of  instruction,  34; 
school  organization  and  management,  24;  school  systems, 
24;   observation  and  practice,  18. 

The  courses  in  educational  theory  and  in  the  principles  of 
education  are  more  often  given  as  lecture  courses  open  to  all 
students,  and  aim  to  cover  the  subject  in  a  broad  way.  This, 
in  addition  to  the  fact  mentioned  on  the  previous  page,  prob- 
ably accounts  in  part  for  the  unusually  large  class  average. 
Omitting  the  large  classes  in  four  institutions,  the  class 
average  in  the  remaining  institutions  is  reduced  to  41.  The 
course  in  observation  and  practice-teaching,  owing  to  the 
lack  of  sufificient  openings  in  the  public  schools  for  such 
work,  is  of  necessity  limited  to  small  classes  of  special  stu- 
dents, and  the  number  given  above  does  not  therefore  truly 
represent  the  student's  real  interest  in  the  subject.  With 
these  exceptions,  it  is  probable  that  the  courses  are  repre- 
sented in  somewhat  their  true  order.  In  the  University  of 
Nebraska  the  popular  courses  are  those  in  the  history  of 
education  and  child  study,  both  of  which  are  attended  by 
many  students  who  have  no  thought  of  teaching,  and  this 
notwithstanding  the  fact  that  these  courses  require  more 
time  of  the  students  for  the  university  credit  received  than 
any    of    the    other    courses    in    the    department.       During 


1  8  2  1'RA  INIXG  OF  SE  CON  DA  R  V  TEA  CIIERS  I  i  g  2 

the  past  semester  the  attendance  in  these  courses  was: 
History  of  education,  male  31,  female  79;  child  study,  male 
20,  female  70. 

Seventy-five  graduates  from  the  University  of  Nebraska 
who  received  the  university  teacher's  certificate  (for  which 
the  following  professional  courses  are  required  :  psychology 
history  of  education,  child  study,  and  any  two  of  the  follow 
ing:  methods  of  instruction,  educational  psychology,  super 
vision  and  management)  gave  answer  to  the  following 
question:  "From  what  one  of  the  professional  courses  did 
you  receive  the  most  benefit?"  The  sex  and  age  of  the 
graduates  answering  the  question  were  given,  but  not  the 
name;  thus  the  writer  had  no  way  of  knowing  from  whom 
any  particular  answer  came.  This  was  purposely  planned 
in  order  to  give  greater  freedom  of  expression.  The  results 
show  that  nineteen  (25  ^^  per  cent.)  think  that  their  greatest 
help  came  from  the  course  in  the  history  of  education,  eigh- 
teen think  it  came  from  the  course  in  child  study,  fourteen 
from  psychology,  eleven  from  methods  of  instruction,  nine 
from  educational  psychology,  and  four  from  supervision  and 
management.  It  is  worth  noting,  that  of  those  who  received 
the  greatest  benefit  from  the  course  in  the  history  of  educa- 
tion, thirteen  were  male  and  six  female ;  of  those  who  re- 
ceived the  greatest  benefit  from  the  course  in  child  study, 
twelve  were  female  and  six  male.  In  the  other  courses  the 
divisions  were  more  nearly  equal,  while  of  the  whole  number 
answering  the  question,  thirty  six  were  male  and  thirty-nine 
were  female. 

It  is  thought  by  many  that  university  stu- 

DO  PROSPEC-  ,        ,  .  ,  ,  ,  t        ■ 

TivE  TEACHERS  ^^'^'^^    looking    forvvard    to    the    profession    of 

sEEKPROFEs-    teaching,  especially   in   secondary  schools,  do 

SIGNAL        j^qI;  avail  themselves  of  the  professional  training 

TRAINING?  Q-  J    •       .1  •  •^-  -rt-     i.    i.t   •      •      i- 

offered  in  the  universities.      I  hat  this  is  true  in 
some  cases  must  be  admitted,  but  that  it  is  not  generally 


183]  PEDAGOGICAL  INSTRUCTION  183 

true,  and  that  it  is  far  less  true  to-day  than  formerly,  must 
also  be  admitted.  Where  this  is  true,  it  is  usually  on  account 
of  the  newness  of  the  department,  or  it  results  from  the 
natural  conservatism  of  old  institutions,  wherein  it  requires 
much  time  to  change  from  the  old  to  the  new  order  of 
things.  From  such  institutions  the  greatest  hindrance  to 
the  professional  training  of  teachers  comes  from  the  profes- 
sors of  other  departments,  who  feel  that  such  training  is  un- 
necessary and  advise  their  students  accordingly.  This  is  an 
honest  and  wholesome  opposition,  which  will  give  way  in 
time  to  better  judgment  and  wiser  counsel. 

Professor  Hanus  of  Harvard  University  says,  "  This  is  true 
of  Harvard.  Indifference  on  the  part  of  the  employers  of 
teachers  (including  principals  and  superintendents  now  in 
service);  indifference  of  the  public  to  professional  training 
for  college-bred  teachers;  traditional  disparagement  of  pro- 
fessional training  by  college  professors,  are  the  principal 
reasons  for  the  condition." 

"I  think  it  is  true  of  Ohio  University.  Explanation: 
lack  of  the  appreciation  of  the  need  of  it  on  the  part  of  col- 
lege professors  and  boards  of  education." — J.  P.  Gordy, 
formerly  of  Ohio  University. 

"  It  is  true  of  Chicago  University.  Pedagogy  is  regarded 
as  a  speciality  to  be  taken  only  by  those  who  are  to  teach 
pedagogy," — C.  H.  Thurber,  formerly  of  Chicago  University. 

"  It  is  true.  Students  lack  knowledge  of  the  possibilities 
of  pedagogical  subjects.  I  estimate  that  sixty  of  our  seniors 
will  teach,  forty-two  are  taking  pedagogy." — Ellor  E.  Car- 
lisle, Wellesley  College. 

"  There  are  a  few  who  enter  teaching  that  do  not  take  the 
courses  in  pedagogy,  chiefly  those  who  are  looking  for  col 
lege  places.     Most  colleges  do  not  require  this  of  their  in- 
structors."— W.  B.  Jacobs,  Brown  University. 

"  Very  few  have  no  professional  training.     Press  of  other 


I  84  TRAIXING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [184 

work  is  perhaps  the  greatest  reason.  The  opinion  that  it  is 
not  needed  is  dying  out  rapidly." — Arthur  Allin,  University 
of  Colorado. 

"  It  is  not  true.  None  receive  a  certificate  enabling  them 
to  teach  who  do  not  take  at  least  twelve  hours  of  professional 
work;  many  take  fifteen  to  eighteen  hours  in  education." — 
ElUvood  P.  Cubberley,  Leland  Stanford  University. 

"  Not  true  here.  Where  true,  it  is  generally  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  pedagogical  work  is  so  namby-pamby  and 
stupid  that  an  active  brain  gets  too  weary  to  stand  it." — 
A.  Caswell  Ellis,  University  of  Texas. 

"  All  who  have  graduated  since  this  department  was 
organized  and  are  teaching,  took  the  professional  training. 
This  year's  graduates  are  all,  save  one,  taking  the  work; 
four  do  not  intend  to  teach.  If  such  is  true,  it  must  be  due 
mainly  to  the  manner  in  which  the  department  is  handled." 
— D.  E.  Phillips,  University  of  Denver. 

"  Every  one  teaching  from  our  last  class  took  full  work  in 
pedagogy." — E.  G.  Lancaster,  Colorado  College. 

"  It  has  not  been  true  since  we  have  offered  a  regular 
course  in  pedagogy.  I  know  of  none  who  expect  to  teach 
who  are  not  taking  the  work  in  full." — Lilian  Scott,  Baker 
University,  Kansas. 

"  Probably  a  small  proportion  who  intend  to  teach  do  not 
take  pedagogical  work." — D.  L.  Kiehle,  formerly  of  the 
University  of  Minnesota. 

"  It  is  not  true  here  Our  State  law  now  requires  10/5 
minimum  preparation  in  order  to  get  a  teaching  permit." — 
John  W.  Stearns,  Wisconsin  University. 

"  By  far  the  larger  number  of  students  going  out  from 
this  university  who  teach  do  some  portion  of  the  peda- 
gogical work.  I  am  inclined  to  think  that  certain  students 
who  are  preparing  themselves  for  highly  specialized  work, 
as  say  the  classics,  looking  forward  to  advanced  positions, 


1 85]  PRDAGOGICAL  INSTRUCTION  185 

are  rather  inclined  to  pass  pedagogical  work  by.  This  is 
only  a  conjecture  and  may  be  wrong." — B.  A.  Hinsdale, 
late  of  the  University  of  Michigan. 

The  above  quotations  are  typical  of  others.  In  the  large 
majority  of  institutions  having  departments  of  education,  all 
students  intending  to  teach  take  advantage  of  the  work. 
There  are  no  doubt  in  every  class  of  graduates  a  few  who, 
as  undergraduates,  had  no  thought  of  teaching,  but  who, 
after  graduation,  either  on  account  of  changed  circumstances 
or  because  they  have  been  encouraged  by  the  advantageous 
employment  of  their  classmates,  conclude  to  try  their  luck 
in  teaching.  The  lack  of  sufificient  discrimination  on  the 
part  of  many  school  boards  often  gives  to  such  students 
good  positions  in  which  to  experiment. 

There  are  a  few  students  who,  though  intending  to  teach, 
are  prevented  from  taking  pedagogical  work  by  the  press  of 
other  university  requirements ;  and  still  others  who  do  not 
take  professional  studies  because  they  have  been  led  to  be- 
lieve in  the  hackneyed  expression,  that  "teachers  are  born, 
not  made,"  a  statement  which  is  scarcely  as  true  of  the 
teacher  as  it  is  true  of  the  lawyer,  the  phyr-ician,  the  min- 
ister, the  banker,  the  farmer,  and  men  in  other  occupations, 
and  not  a  whit  more  true.  Another  fallacy  which  has  had 
its  influence  in  deterring  students  from  departments  of  edu- 
cation is  the  thought,  that  "when  an  individual  knows  a 
subject  he  can  teach  it."  Any  student  with  a  fair  share  of 
common  sense  need  not  spend  more  than  one  year  in  the 
ordinary  university  to  be  convinced  of  the  absurdity  of  this 
statement.  Many  a  university  professor  whose  scholarship 
no  one  would  question  is  an  absolute  failure  as  a  teacher, 
and  if  in  a  high  school  or  grammar  grade  position  would 
have  to  resign  before  drawing  his  first  month's  pay.  Prob- 
abl)'  in  the  same  university  are  other  professors  whose 
scholarship   is   scarcely  sufificient  to   enable    them   to   pass 


1 86  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  \\Z6 

muster  on  drill  day,  but  who,  as  teachers,  are  able  to  clarify 
the  subject  and  inspire  their  students  to  loftier  heights  than 
they  themselves  have  been  capable  of  attaining. 

With  these  exceptions,  which  are  few  in  the  aggregate, 
and  are  continually  decreasing  in  number,  professional  train- 
ing is  sought  by  students  who  intend  to  teach,  and  in  most 
departments  of  education,  besides  prospective  teachers,  are 
found  many  students  who  have  no  thought  of  teaching,  but 
who  take  the  work  on  account  of  its  culture  value.  As 
shown  in  another  part  of  this  chapter,  school  superintendents 
prefer  pedagogically-trained  teachers  for  the  high  schools  as 
well  as  for  the  grades  when  they  can  be  had,  and  in  the 
struggle  for  success  the  university  student  will  not  be  slow 
in  shaping  his  work  along  the  lines  that  promise  the  greatest 
future  efficiency. 

Many  universities  have  arranged  work  lead- 

uNivERsiTY     jj^       Qj^   graduation,   to   a  university  teachers' 

TEACHFRS' 

CERTIFICATES  Certificate.  Such  courses  have  usually  resulted 
from  concerted  action  after  careful  considera- 
tion of  the  real  needs  of  public  school  teachers,  and  repre- 
sent the  best  thought  of  the  university  upon  the  subject.  In 
general,  the  requirements  for  the  university  teachers'  certifi- 
cates cover  three  distinct  lines  of  preparation.  Of  these 
requirements  the  first  one,  designated  general  knowledge,  is 
intended  to  give  culture  and  breadth,  and  requires  for  its 
completion  a  university  degree,  preferably  a  Bachelor  of 
Arts  degree.  The  second  requirement,  designated  special 
knowledge,  is  intended  to  give  a  certain  degree  of  special- 
ization in  the  subjects  which  the  candidate  expects  to  teach. 
It  is  usually  made  to  cover  twenty  or  more  hours  of  univer- 
sity credit  in  one  subject,  or  preferably  two  allied  subjects 
which  are  among  the  list  of  academic  subjects  taught  in 
high  schools.  The  third  requirement,  designated  profes- 
sional knowledge,  is  intended  to  acquaint  the  student  with 


1 8;]  PEDAGOGICAL  INSTRUCTION  187 

the  history,  organization,  theory  and  practice,  and  the  more 
practical  problems  of  education  and  public  school  teaching. 
On  this  point  Dean  Russell,  of  Teachers  College,  Columbia 
University,  says :  "  But  the  least  professional  knowledge 
that  should  be  deemed  acceptable  is  an  appreciation  of  the 
physical  conditions  essential  to  success  in  school  work  and 
a  thorough  understanding  of  psychology  and  its  applications 
in  teaching,  of  the  history  of  education  from  the  culture 
standpoint,  and  of  the  philosophic  principles  that  determine 
all  education." 

The  professional  requirement  usually  covers  from  fifteen 
to  eighteen  hours  of  university  credits  in  the  essential  peda- 
gogical subject,  as  indicated  in  another  part  of  this  chapter. 
In  some  universities  having  better  equipped  departments  of 
education  there  is  a  fourth  requirement,  known  as  practice 
or  skill  in  teaching.  Quoting  again  from  Dean  Russell,  who 
says:  "Present  conditions  seem  to  me  to  indicate  four  qual- 
ities pre-eminently  desired  in  the  teacher:  (i)  General 
knowledge,  (2)  professional  knowledge,  (3)  special  knowl- 
edge, and  (4)  skill  in  teaching.  The  inability  of  the  average 
teacher  to  present  these  four  qualities  in  due  proportion  is 
the  principal  cause  of  the  prevailing  chaos  in  secondary 
education." 

The  Nebraska  university  teachers'  certificate  was  estab- 
lished in  1896.  It  is  quite  similar  in  its  conditions  and  re- 
quirements to  those  in  other  state  universities,  and  is  offered 
as  a  type.  "  The  university  teacher's  certificate  is  granted 
to  such  graduates  of  the  university  as  have  satisfactorily  com- 
pleted the  work  outlined  below,  and  have  shown  such  marked 
proficiency  therein  as  to  justify  the  faculties  in  recommend- 
ing them  for  the  profession  of  teaching. 

"  The  professional  work  required  for  the  teacher's  certificate 
may  be  elected,  the  same  as  work  in  all  other  departments,  by 
regular  students  above  sophomore  standing,  by  experienced 


1 8 8  TRA IX TNG  OF  SECOND AR  Y  TEA  CHERS  [  j  g g 

teachers  and  by  unclassed  students  who  satisfy  the  heads  of 
departments  that  they  are  sufficiently  qualified  to  pursue 
the  work 

Requirements:  {a)  General  knowledge.  The  candidate 
must  hold  the  bachelor's  or  master's  degree  from  this  uni- 
versity.    The  correct  use  of  English  is  a  prime  requisite. 

{b)  Special  knowledge.  The  completion  of  work  amount- 
ing normally  to  20  hours  in  a  subject  or  group  of  closely 
allied  subjects  which  the  student  expects  to  teach,  the  ulti- 
mate decision  as  to  the  student's  proficiency  resting  with  the 
departments  concerned.  As  examples  of  groups  of  subjects 
may  be  mentioned  Latin  and  Greek,  Modern  languages, 
English  and  history,  history  and  political  economy,  mathe- 
matics and  physics,  physics  and  chemistry,  botany  and 
zoology,  drawing  and  manual  training. 

{c)  Professional  knowledge.  The  completion  of  16  hours 
in  psychology  and  education.  It  is  recommended  that 
about  one-third  of  this  work  be  taken  in  the  department  of 
philosophy  and  the  remainder  in  the  department  of  educa- 
tion. As  a  substitute  for  the  two  hours'  course  in  general 
methods,  the  student  may  elect  a  special  teacher's  course 
offered  by  the  department  in  which  he  is  taking  his  special 
work. 

All  general  questions  relating  to  the  student's  professional 
work  are  under  the  supervision  of  a  committee  consisting  of 
the  professor  of  education,  the  professor  of  philosophy,  and 
the  dean  of  the  college  in  which  the  student  is  registered, 
and  recommendations  for  the  teacher's  certificate  are  made 
through  this  committee  to  the  faculties  of  the  university."  ^ 

In  most  cases  these  university  teachers'  certificates  are 
recognized  by  legislative  enactments  and  accepted  in  lieu  of 
all  further  teachers'  examinations  in  the  states  in  which  they 
are  granted  ;   in  many  cases  they  are  accepted  by  the  proper 

'  University  of  Nebraska  Calandar,  1902-1903,  pp.  315-316. 


189]  PEDAGOGICAL  INSTRUCTION  1 89 

school  authorities  of  other  states  as  sufficient  credentials 
upon  which  to  grant  teachers'  hcenses  without  examination. 
When  the  meaning  of  these  certificates  becomes  known  to 
school  officers  and  the  public  they  will  be  far  more  generally 
recognized  as  valuable  credentials  upon  which  to  test  the 
merit  of  a  teacher. 

The    question    as    to   the   time  when    peda- 

THE  WHEN  OF  •        i      •        j.  ,.•  u     1 1     U  •  •  ^Ml 

gogicai   mstruction   shall   be  given,  is    still  an 

PEDAGOGICAL      °     °  o  ' 

INSTRUCTION  opcn  ouc,  though  it  is  probably  being  settled 
in  the  most  efficient  way  through  natural  ad- 
justments. Those  who  have  given  the  subject  serious 
thought  are  divided  into  three  classes.  In  the  first  group 
are  those  who  believe  that  the  professional  instruction  relat- 
ing to  the  teaching  of  any  subject  should  not  be  separated 
from  the  academic  study  and  recitation  of  the  subject  matter 
itself;  the  pedagogical  instruction  should  be  freed  from 
theory,  made  essentially  concrete,  and  practically  illustrated 
in  the  study  and  recitation  of  every  subject.  The  best  ex- 
amples of  this  view  are  to  be  seen  in  the  elementary  normal 
schools  of  Germany,  and  to  a  large  extent  in  the  elementary 
normal  schools  in  the  United  States  and  other  countries. 

The  second  group  hold  that  the  most  efTective  results  are 
obtained  when  the  pedagogical  instruction  is  given  separate 
and  distinct  from  the  academic  instruction ;  both  to  be  in 
progress  at  the  same  time,  but  the  academic  instruction  to 
be  kept  in  advance  of  the  professional  by  at  least  one  or  two 
years.  Much  more  stress  is  placed  upon  the  history,  theory, 
and  fundamental  principles  of  education,  and  less  attention 
given  to  concrete  illustrations  and  direct  applications.  An 
illustration  of  this  view  is  to  be  found  in  the  pedagogical 
seminaries  of  the  German  universities,  and  a  still  better  one 
in  the  college  and  university  departments  of  education  in  the 
United  States. 

The  third  group  hold  to  the  view  that  the  professional  in- 


1 90  TRAINING  OF  SECONDAR  V  TEA CHERS  P  j  go 

stniction  should  be  entirely  divorced  from  the  academic, 
the  latter  belonging  properly  to  undergraduate  study  and 
the  former  to  graduate  study.  The  academic  instruction, 
therefore,  should  be  completed  before  the  professional  is 
taken  up,  and  when  the  pedagogical  instruction  is  once 
begun  it  should  be  given  undivided  attention,  along  with 
application  and  practice.  This  view  is  seen  to  best  advan- 
tage in  the  German  gymnasial  seminary.  It  has  not  been 
well  worked  out  in  this  country,  and  there  are  consequently 
no  very  good  illustrations.  The  School  of  Pedagogy,  New 
York  University,  is  probably  the  best  example  in  the  United 
States;  however,  it  lacks  on  the  side  of  direct  application 
and  practice.  In  many  of  the  larger  cities  there  is  a  normal 
or  teachers'  course,  which  follows  immediately  after  high 
school  graduation ;  that,  in  a  large  part,  represents  the 
above  view,  though  here  again  there  is  a  weakness  in  both 
the  academic  and  purely  professional  studies. 

While  the  three  views  expressed  above  cover  in  the  main 
the  principal  thought  regarding  the  time  when  pedagogical 
instruction  should  be  given,  there  are  many  variations  and 
much  overlapping.  In  actual  practice  it  is  often  difhcult  to 
discover  the  lines  of  demarcation,  and  yet  beneath  all  there 
lie  three  distinct  pedagogical  principles.  The  first  is  repre- 
sented by  the  thought  that  we  learn  to  do  by  doing,  and  we 
learn  to  teach  by  observing  the  instruction  of  a  master  and 
by  imitating  his  example.  Each  lesson  becomes  a  model 
lesson  for  the  student  to  observe,  understand  and  apply 
repeat  .  The  underlying  principle  is  one  of  imitation,  en- 
forced by  the  thought  that  we  learn  to  do  by  doing.  Edu- 
cational principles  are  brought  out  and  established  in  con- 
nection with  the  original  study  and  recitation  (teaching)  of 
the  subject  itself,  or  by  means  of  extended  reviews.  Where 
this  view  is  maintained  in  its  purest  form,  every  teacher 
must  be  a  model   teacher  and    every  lesson    contain  such 


I g  1 1  PEDAGOGICAL  INSTR UCTION  19 1 

material  and  be  presented  in  such  a  manner  as  to  be  the 
most  efficient  when  passed  on  from  individual  to  individual. 
For  young  students  who  are  plastic  and  lack  broad 
scholarship,  but  who  desire  to  prepare  quickly  for  the  pro- 
fession of  teaching,  it  is  the  most  efficient  method.  It  no 
doubt  has  much  value  in  the  training  of  elementary  teachers 
whose  future  work  must  consist  largely  in  carrying  out  fixed 
courses  of  study,  formative  work,  and  drill.  Confidence  and 
contentment,  two  qualities  fostered  by  this  method,  are  not 
in  themselves  bad  qualities  to  be  possessed  by  the  ele- 
mentary teacher.  Such  a  method,  however,  must  materially 
interfere  with  the  originality  and  progressive  spirit  of  the 
student,  and  for  this  reason  may  be  better  adapted  to  the 
stable  society  and  more  fixed  condition  of  elementary  edu- 
cation in  Germany  than  to  the  conditions  existing  in  the 
United  States. 

Those  who  hold  to  the  second  view  do  not 

TEACHING  AND 

LEARNING  Underrate  the  value  of  imitation  and  of  action 
DISPARATE  as  Conditioning  forces  in  the  process  of  educa- 
pRocEssEs  ^j^j^^  i^^j.  ^j^gy  maintain  that  the  processes  of 
learning  and  of  teaching  are  two  disparate  processes  that 
cannot  be  carried  on  effectively  by  the  same  persons  at  the 
same  time.  The  process  of  learning  is  one  of  acquisition 
and  mental  adjustment,  while  the  process  of  teaching  is  one 
of  guidance  and  the  imparting  of  knowledge.  The  prevail- 
ing motive  in  the  one  case  must  be  the  desire  to  know  or 
understand,  while  in  the  other  it  must  be  how  to  impart,  or 
assist  others  to  know,  what  is  already  known.  In  the  one 
the  end  in  view  is  the  object  or  subject-matter,  in  the  other 
the  growing  mind  of  the  child.  To  confuse  the  student  by 
interpolating  principles  regarding  the  process  of  teaching 
while  he  is  still  in  the  midst  of  the  process  of  learning  to 
understand  and  appreciate  the  subject-matter  itself,  is  to 
defeat  the  true  aim  of  instruction. 


ig2  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [192 

Before  one  can  plan  to  best  advantage  for  the  teaching  of 
a  subject,  which  naturally  requires  much  mental  adjustment 
and  reorganization  of  material  with  the  new  thought  in  view, 
he  must  know  the  subject;  though  he  will  probably  know  it 
much  better  after  this  second  study  with  the  thought  of 
teaching.  Hence,  in  the  education  and  preparation  of  teach- 
ers in  the  universities,  it  is  thought  best  to  have  the  academic 
instruction  precede  by  at  least  one  or  two  years  that  of  the 
professional.  However,  as  a  knowledge  of  the  art  of  study 
and  of  the  means  through  which  we  acquire  knowledge  are 
fundamental  requisites  to  successful  teaching,  it  is  thought 
best  to  continue  the  academic  studies  along  with  the  profes- 
sional, in  order  that  the  one  may  be  made  to  assist  and  re- 
enforce  the  other.  Again,  as  every  successful  teacher  must 
be  also  a  successful  learner  or  student,  it  is  felt  that  some 
real  study  or  investigation  (preferably  in  the  academic  sub- 
jects to  be  taught  later)  should  be  in  operation  during  the 
entire  time  of  the  professional  instruction,  in  order  to  give 
to  it  meaning  and  force.  Teaching  is  largely  a  conscious 
process,  and  with  mature  students  theory  may  be  made  to 
economize  practice,  and  greatly  increase  the  efficiency  of  the 
prospective  teacher. 

The  basic  principle  of  the  third  view  is  that  of  isolation 
and  concentration.  Here  the  student  has  completed  his 
academic  studies,  at  least  for  the  time  being,  and  is  ready  to 
devote  his  entire  attention  to  the  professional  subjects,  along 
with  their  application  to  the  process  of  teaching.  In  the 
German  gymnasial  seminary  great  stress  is  placed  upon 
actual  teaching  under  guidance.  This  may  or  may  not  be 
valuable.  The  more  stable  the  conditions  of  society  and  of 
education,  the  more  valuable  becomes  the  practice-teaching. 
Some  practice-teaching  is  always  valuable,  but  clear  concep- 
tions of  the  purposes  of  education,  the  means  by  which  it  is 
to  be  brought  about,  and  the  nature  of  the  growing  mind 


193]  PEDAGOGICAL  INSTRUCTION  igj 

which  is  to  receive  it,  are  in  the  end  far  more  valuable. 
Both  are  important,  but  if  either  is  to  be  neglected,  neglect 
the  former.  Ten  years  of  practice-teaching  without  study  of 
educational  principles  will  do  far  less  to  make  a  true  teacher 
than  two  years  of  study  under  the  right  environment  without 
practice-teaching.  Everything  that  detracts  from  the  orig- 
inality and  progressiveness  of  the  individual  detracts  from 
his  success  as  a  teacher. 

In  the  quotations  from  professors  of  educa- 
How  SHALL  tion,  presented  in  another  part  of  this  chapter, 
PEDAGOGICAL    j^  found  z.  partial  answer  to  the  above  question. 

INSTRUCTION  _  ^  ^ 

BE  GIVEN?  It  is  usually  the  first  thought  of  every  one,  that 
the  professional  instruction  should  be  given  in 
like  manner  to  that  of  the  academic ;  what  is  true  of  one  is 
true  of  the  other.  But  further  consideration  is  apt  to  lead 
one  to  question  this  statement.  It  is  true  that  the  environ- 
ment, nature  and  size  of  the  class,  the  peculiar  capabilities 
of  the  instructor,  and  the  amount  of  assistance,  tend  to 
modify  or  fix  the  manner  of  treatment.  But  it  is  also  true 
that  the  method  has  much  to  do  with  the  efficiency  of  the 
work,  and  all  methods  are  not  equally  appropriate  and 
valuable. 

In  answering  this  question  it  becomes  necessary  to  take 
into  consideration  the  nature  and  purposes  of  professional 
training.  It  is  to  give  knowledge  to  be  sure,  and  in  so  far 
is  similar  to  academic  training,  but  this  knowledge  is  of  a 
special  nature  adapted  to  a  particular  calling.  The  primal 
object  of  professional  instruction  is  not  to  make  the  scholar, 
important  as  that  may  be,  but  to  make  the  teacher. 

What  are  the  essential  qualities  of  the  teacher? 

ESSENTIAL      ^j.  gather  what   are   the   greatest   deficiencies? 

QUALITIES  OF  •  1,.  i       i  i   • 

THE  TEACHER    ^ack  of  intelligence,  scholarship,  breadth  and 

depth  of  knowledge,  special  knowledge  of  the 

subject  to  be  taught,  ability  to  see  the  relationship  of  studies  ; 


194  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [194 

lack  of  judgment,  determination,  originality,  and  the  pro- 
gressive spirit:  qualities  all  of  which  belong  to  and  are  con- 
cerned with  the  academic  instruction  more  than  with  the 
professional.  But  there  are  other  qualities  which  have  still 
more  to  do  with  the  success  or  failure  of  teachers,  and  these 
belong  more  appropriately  to  the  professional  training. 
Among  these  qualities  are:  an  attractive  personality,  an 
amiable  disposition;  an  understanding  of,  and  sympathy 
with  child  nature  (human  nature);  self-control,  tact,  grit, 
and  ability  to  direct  and  govern;  keenness  of  insight,  com- 
mand of  language,  ability  to  impart  knowledge  and  to  influ- 
ence others ;  a  pleasant  and  well  modulated  voice,  energy 
and  uprightness  of  character;  power  of  adaptation,  a  pro- 
fessional spirit,  a  commendable  purpose,  and  an  appreciation 
of,  and  a  desire  for,  what  is  ennobling  in  human  nature. 
These  are  not  all  the  qualities  demanded  of  the  true  teacher, 
but  they  are  probably  the  more  important  ones  that  must  be 
considered  under  the  head  of  professional  training.  In  just 
so  far  as  the  method  of  professional  instruction  has  been 
made  to  stimulate  and  develop  these  qualities,  to  that  degree 
has  it  been  successful. 

We  have  in  mind  now  university  students  who  are  prepar- 
ing for  principalships  and  high  school  positions,  and  what  we 
are  led  to  say  will  be  with  this  class  in  view.  It  is  the 
opinion  of  the  writer  that  such  students  lack  most  in  ease 
and  readiness  to  express  their  thoughts  in  clear,  terse  Eng- 
lish. This  difficulty  must  be  overcome,  and  the  class-room 
is  a  good  place  in  which  to  begin.  The  lack  of  a  good 
command  of  language  may  not  be  a  serious  difficulty  to  the 
scientist  or  the  mechanic  who  has  other  means  of  expression, 
but  to  the  teacher  it  is  almost  a  sine  qua  non. 

Our  best  students  are  often  timid  and  ill  at  ease  when  en- 
deavoring to  express  their  thoughts.  They  see  far  better 
than  they  can  express.     They  need  courage  and  power  to 


195]  PEDAGOGICAL  I\  SrRUCTIO.V  igc 

do.  This  can  be  brought  out  to  best  advantage  in  the  class- 
room, but  not,  as  the  reader  must  know,  by  the  lecture 
method.  The  students  must  be  given  opportunity  and 
power  to  do,  and  this  will  shape  the  method.  Occasional 
lectures  are  valuable,  and  a  lecture  course  may  be  of  service 
in  giving  breadth  of  view,  but  such  a  course  cannot  develop 
the  latent  power  of  the  student,  or  materially  increase  his 
ability  to  act. 

What  then  shall  be  the  method  in  the  pro- 
fessional   training    of    teachers?     Evidently    it 

TREATMENT  °  ^ 

ought  to  be  such  a  form  of  class-room  work  as 
will  tend  to  supplement  the  academic  instruction,  to  give 
courage  and  originality  to  the  student,  and  to  increase  his 
desire  and  ability  to  perform.  It  should  call  forth  and  de- 
velop his  latent  powers,  especially  those  powers  which  are 
essential  to  the  teacher.  It  should  keep  him  constantly  on 
the  alert,  thoughtful  and  active.  It  should  furnish  him  with 
a  key  not  only  to  the  best  thoughts  of  his  instructor,  but  also 
to  the  best  thoughts,  ideals,  and  forms  of  expression  of  his 
classmates.  It  should  be  a  means  of  discovering  and  cor- 
recting the  weaknesses  and  idiosyncracies  of  the  students. 
It  should  be  in  part  a  model  which  students  could  use  to 
advantage  in  their  after  teaching. 

Such  a  method  would  not  be  a  lecture  method,  where  the 
teacher  is  supposed  to  pour  forth  and  the  students  to  drink 
in ;  neither  would  it  be  a  recitation  method,  in  which  the 
students,  by  means  of  catch-questions  from  the  instructor, 
give  forth  what  they  have  previously  learned.  But  it  would 
be  the  best  features  of  both  these  methods  combined  with 
a  third — laboratory  or  developmental  method — in  which 
teacher  and  student  are  alike  alive  and  growing,  each  in  turn 
aiding  to  give  direction  to  the  discussions  and  thought  of  the 
hour.  The  work  for  the  most  part  will  consist  of  extensive 
reading,  brief  reports,  timely  questioning,   pointed   discus- 


196  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [igg 

sions,  and  brief  talks  or  lectures  by  the  instructor  in  which 
the  scattered  threads  are  united.  To  conduct  a  recitation  in 
this  manner  requires  far  more  strength  and  energy  of  the 
instructor  than  to  devote  the  time  to  lecturing,  but  the  re- 
turns much  more  than  justify  the  outlay.  In  such  courses 
as  the  history,  or  theory  of  education,  where  the  main  object 
is  to  give  to  the  student  knowledge  of  fundamental  principles 
and  breadth  of  view,  there  may  be  times  and  circumstances 
when  it  seems  best  to  give  the  work  by  means  of  lectures 
only,  but  even  here  the  student  would  greatly  appreciate  the 
opportunity  of  sharing  more  in  the  class  work. 

From  what  has  already  been  said,  one  might 
infer  the  nature  of  the  preparation.     With  im- 

OR  TOPIC  ^       ^ 

mature  students  a  text  is  almost  an  indispens- 
able requisite,  but  not  so  with  university  students,  especially 
juniors,  seniors,  and  graduates.  Yet  even  with  university 
students  it  will  often  be  found  helpful  to  have  a  well-chosen 
text,  or  better  still  to  have  several  texts,  to  be  used  to  fur- 
nish the  nucleus  for  class  reports  and  discussions.  But  the 
work  will  be  greatly  strengthened  by  carefully-prepared 
topical  outlines,  with  plenty  of  references  and  some  leading 
questions.  Such  an  outline  will  be  beneficial  in  giving 
direction  to  students,  and  through  a  proper  assignment  of 
references,  every  member  will  be  responsible  for  some  mate- 
rial or  report  outside  of  the  main  text  or  nucleus.  In  this 
way  a  large  part  of  the  entire  field  is  gone  over,  and  the 
whole  class  receives  the  benefit  of  what  is  essential  or  worth 
while  in  all.  It  teaches  students  how  to  use  a  library,  to 
extract  wheat  from  chaff,  or  to  discern  when  it  is  all  chaff. 
If  the  instructor  knows  his  subject,  this  plan  will  enable 
students  to  become  good  gleaners  and  to  give  quickly  and 
accurately  the  essentials  of  an  article. 

There  are  some  subjects,  as  educational  classics,  in  which 
a  text  is  essential,  but  even  here  collateral  reading  will  add 


197]  PEDAGOGICAL  INSTKUCTIOA'  igy 

to  the  interest  and  benefit  of  the  study.  It  is  often  difficult 
to  find  a  good  college  text-book  on  the  different  professional 
studies,  but  with  a  good  systematic  outline  covering  the 
more  important  phases  of  the  subject  the  absence  of  a  text 
is  of  less  moment.  Besides,  such  an  outline  can  be  modi- 
fied, reduced  or  extended  to  meet  contingencies. 

Whether  text  or  topical  outline,  therefore,  is  a  matter  that 
depends  upon  the  nature  of  the  texts  to  be  found,  the 
strength  and  maturity  of  the  students,  the  nature  and  pur- 
poses of  the  course,  and  the  condition  and  office  force  of  the 
teaching  body.  Where  a  text  is  used  it  should  never  be  by 
a  memoriter  process,  and  it  should  be  supplemented  with 
much  collateral  reading. 

In  most  subjects,  especially  with  college  students,  the 
best  results  are  obtained  by  the  use  of  well  prepared  topical 
outlines  and  library  reading,  one  or  more  texts  being  used  as 
a  nucleus.  Take  for  instance  the  history  of  education  where, 
as  in  the  university  of  Nebraska,  the  membership  is  made 
up  largely  of  persons  destined  to  become  educational 
leaders — high  school  teachers,  elementary  and  high  school 
principals,  town  and  city  superintendents — the  object  should 
be  to  give  to  the  student  a  broad,  intelligent  view  of  the 
fundamental  problems  of  educational  thought  and  practice, 
to  show  in  a  way  the  evolution  of  civilization  as  marked  by 
systems  of  education. 

For  such  a  course  there  is  no  single  text  available. 
Laurie's  Pre-Christian  Education  covers  one  part  well; 
Davidson's  Aristotle,  and  History  of  Education,  another;  ' 
Monroe's  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education  (Greek 
and  Roman),  and  Compayre's  History  of  Pedagogy,  still 
others;  and  Boone's  Education  in  the  United  States  fur- 
nishes a  fair  nucleus  for  the  history  of  education  in  this 
country.  These  with  several  other  excellent  books  as  a 
nucleus,  supplemented   by  a  set  of  outlines  similar  to  the 


198  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [198 

one  published  in  the  appendix,  will  furnish  the  material  for 
an  interesting  and  profitable  course  in  the  history  of  educa- 
tion covering  three  or  four  hours  per  week  for  one  year. 

Where  the  texts  or  references  cover  the  same  thought  or 
period  the}'-  should  be  read  by  different  members  of  the 
class.  Thus  each  student  has  read  something  bearing  on 
every  topic,  and  by  means  of  the  class  recitation  he  has  ob- 
tained the  additional  thoughts  gained  by  others. 

The  work  in  child  study  is  presented  in  much 

COURSE  IN  , ,  i.1       .     •       .  1         1   ■    ^  f         1 

the  same  manner  as  that  m  the  history  of  edu- 

CHILD  STUDY  ,  ■' 

cation.  The  purposes  of  the  introductory 
course  as  at  present  offered  are:  (i)  through  the  use  of  the 
library,  to  familiarize  the  student  with  the  more  important 
literature  on  the  subject;  (2)  through  introspection,  and 
brief  studies  of  children,  to  acquaint  the  student  with  the 
natural  tendencies  in  human  (child)  nature;  (3)  how  to 
apply  this  knowledge  to  best  advantage  in  the  education  of 
children.  The  subject  of  child  study  is  so  new  in  its  present 
form  that  it  would  be  difificult  to  write  a  suitable  text,  but 
with  topical  outlines  which  can  be  modified  or  reconstructed 
from  year  to  year  to  include  new  material  and  meet  the 
growing  needs  of  the  subject,  the  lack  of  a  good  text  is  not 
a  serious  one. 

Children's  Drawings,  Outlines  24  and  25. 

The  spontaneous  drawings  of  children  afford  one 
SAMPLE  ouTLiNEs^f  ^j^^  ^^g^  ^^^^^  ^f  Studying  the  workings  of  the 

child  mind.     It  is  surprising  that  this  key  to  child 

CHILD   STUDY  '  ° 

nature  has  not  received  greater  attention.  A  few 
quite  interesting  studies  have  been  made,  and  Jas.  Sully  has  de- 
voted a  chapter  to  this  subject  in  his  late  work,  "  Studies  of  Child- 
hood," showing  the  similarity  of  the  early  drawings  of  children  and 
those  of  primitive  man.  These  studies  (see  under  references)  are 
quite  valuable,  and  yet  they  are  only  beginnings.  They  show  that 
in  drawing  children  pass  through  similar  stages  to  those  of  the  race. 


igp]  PEDAGOGICAL  INSTKUCTIOM  199 

That  children  in  their  earlier  drawings  are  more  or  less  anthropo- 
morphic, and  usually  begin  with  that  part  of  the  subject  with  which 
the  artist  ends,  /.  e.,  with  man. 

Note  the  artistic  evolution  of  man,  as  seen  in  the  illustrations 
given  by  Sully,  and  account  for  the  order. 

Children  think  in  wholes  ;  but  while  the  adult's  whole  is  the  man, 
the  child's  whole  is  an  ear,  an  eye,  or  a  hand.  At  first  any  scribble 
or  scrawl  made  by  the  child  represents  to  him  the  object  he  has  in 
mind.  Gradually,  as  he  accidentally  hits  upon  a  more  fortunate 
stroke,  which  suggests  to  him  an  object,  it  is  at  once  accepted  as 
the  proper  symbol. 

To  a  child  drawing  begins  as  a  gesture  language,  a  means  of  expres- 
sion. He  draws  from  memory,  not  from  observation.  He  sees  the 
head  of  a  boy  at  the  window,  he  knows  the  entire  body  must  be 
there,  so  completes  the  missing  parts.  A  model  is  placed  before  him, 
he  glances  at  it,  turns  away  and  draws  from  memory  an  image  of  it. 

One  difference  between  the  drawings  of  a  child  and  those  of  an 
adult,  is  that  the  latter  represents  artistically  an  instantaneous 
photograph,  while  the  former  describes  in  a  single  picture  a  series 
of  photographs. 

Mrs.  Louise  Maitland,  who  has  made  careful  study  of  children's 
drawings,  gives  three  fairly  distinct  stages,  corresponding  to  different 
ages  :  (i)  From  six  to  about  nine  years  of  age  is  the  age  of  illustra- 
tion, when  children  respond  eagerly  with  drawings  illustrating  scenes 
of  their  own  lives,  or  scenes  of  stories  told  or  read;  (2)  from  ten 
to  twelve,  when  children,  though  still  interested  in  illustrating,  are 
far  more  interested  ia  making  sketches  of  every-day  objects ;  (3) 
from  twelve  onward,  when  the  whole  interest  of  the  child  seems 
directed  toward  accurate  work,  to  represent  with  fidelity  geometrical, 
decorative  designs,  figures  from  life  and  casts,  landscapes  and  objects 
about  them.  In  the  first  stage  the  child's  spontaneous  drawings 
were  free  from  geometrical  designs,  dealing  almost  exclusively  with 
the  pictures  of  men,  women  and  children,  animals,  houses  and  trees, 
while  at  fifteen  and  sixteen  geometrical  drawings  predominate. 

From  these  studies  it  would  seem  that  we  are  not  following  the 
order  of  natural  development  in  our  teaching  of  drawing.  Are  the 
natural  tendencies  in  the  child's  development  right  and  to  be  en- 


200  TRAINING  OF  SECOADARY   TEACHERS  [200 

couraged,  or  are  they  wrong  and  to  be  held  in  check,  or  diverted  by 
other  standards  imposed  by  the  philosophy  of  man?  In  either  case 
we  must  know  what  the  natural  tendencies  are  in  order  to  accom- 
plish the  best  results. 

What  is  the  purpose  of  instruction  in  drawing,  to  cultivate  a  love 
for  the  beautiful,  to  make  artists,  or  to  give  an  additional  means 
of  express'on?  Whatever  the  view,  are  we  succeeding?  Judging 
from  the  different  interests  of  the  child  in  drawing,  what  plan  of  in- 
struction should  be  followed  ?  What  advantage  is  gained  in  follow- 
ing nature?  What  use  of  drawing  can  be  made  in  nature  study? 
How  do  you  account  for  children  becoming  more  timid  in  drawing 
as  they  grow  older?  When  would  you  begin  the  grammar  of  draw- 
ing?   Suggestions  for  study  and  the  teaching  of  drawing  are  omitted. 

References. 
Barnes,  Earl,  Studies  of  Children's  Drawings,  Ped.  Sem.,  2:  455. 
Barnes  and  Maitland,  Art  of  Little  Children,  Ped.  Sem.,  3 :  302. 
Brown,  E.  E.,  Notes  on  Children's  Drawings,  Univ.  of  Cal.  Studies,  V.  2,  No.  I. 
Clark,  Arthur  B.,  Child's  Attitude  toward  Perspective;   Earl  Barnes,  Studies  in 
Educa.,  p.  283. 

Fitz,  H.  G.     Free-hand  Drawing  in  Education,  Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  51  :  755. 

Hart,  W.  R.,  Children's  Choice  of  Pictures,  Northw.  Mo.,  7 :  24. 

Hart,  Mrs.  Mary  R.,  The  Child  Revealed  Through  its  Drawings,  Northw.  Mo., 

8:193. 

Herrick,  Mary  A.,  Children's  Drawings,  Ped.  Sem.,  3 :  338. 

Jackson,  W.  S.,  Representative  Expression  in  Nature  Study,  Educa.  Rev.,  10 : 
248. 

Luckey,  G.  W.  A.,  Teaching  Drawing,  Northw.  Mo.,  8:  185. 

Lukens,  H.  T.,  A  Study  of  Children's  Drawings  in  Early  Years,  Ped.  Sem.,  4 179. 

Gallagher,  Marguerite,  Children's  Spontaneous  Drawings,  Northw.  Mo.,  8: 130. 

Maitland,  Louise,  Notes  on  Eskimo  Drawings,  Northw.  Mo.,  9 :  443. 

Maitland,  Louise,  What  Children  Draw  to  Please  Themselves,  Inland  Edu- 
cator, 1 :  77. 

McDermott,  Louise,  Favorite  Drawings  of  Indian  Children,  Northw.  Mo.,  8  :I34. 

O'Shea,  M.  V.,  Children's  Expression  Through  Drawing,  Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1894, 
p.  1015;   Some  Aspects  of  Drawing,  Educa.  Rev.,  14:  263. 

Sully,  Jas.,  Ihe  Young  Draughtsman;   Studies  of  Childhood,  p.  331. 

Volk,  Douglas,  Public  School  Art  Instruction,  Northw.  Mo.,  May,  '99,  9 :  396. 


COURSE  IN 


Take    one    further    illustration,    that    of    the 
course  in  methods  of  instruction,  which  does 

METHODS 

not  include  the  courses  in  special  method  given 


2oi]  PEDAGOGICAL  INSTRVCTION  2OI 

by  the  departments  having  control  of  the  academic  subjects, 
the  manner  of  treatment  will  vary  greatly.  But  considering 
the  maturity  of  the  students  and  the  responsible  positions  to 
which  many  will  be  called,  the  writer  believes  that  he  can 
serve  their  interest  best  by  assisting  them  to  understand  the 
philosophy  and  fundamental  principles  that  underlie  all 
method.  For  this  purpose  he  divides  the  work  of  each  sub- 
ject into  three  steps:  (1)  a  critical  study  of  the  historical 
development  of  the  various  methods  that  have  been  used  in 
the  teaching  of  the  subject,  including  the  reasons  for  the 
change  of  method;  (2)  an  examination  and  criticism  of  the 
methods  now  in  use;  (3)  one  or  two  lectures  from  various 
members  of  the  faculty  with  reference  to  the  best  methods 
of  teaching  their  subjects  in  secondary  schools.  Each  of 
the  elementary  and  high  school  subjects  is  gone  over  in  this 
way  and  the  material  condensed  for  the  enlightenment  of  all. 
Early  in  the  course  every  member  makes  selection  of  a  sub- 
ject, usually  the  one  he  will  afterwards  teach,  to  which  he 
devotes  special  attention  (about  half  of  his  required  prepara- 
tion-time), working  up  the  subject  in  a  careful  manner 
according  to  points  i  and  2.  Near  the  close  of  the  semester 
he  gives  the  results  of  his  special  study  in  a  well  prepared 
paper  for  the  benefit  of  others.  From  the  class-work  and 
his  general  reading  he  obtains  a  fair  idea  of  the  underlying 
principles  of  method,  and  from  his  special  study  he  becomes 
quite  familiar  with  the  methods  used  in  teaching  his  subject 
and  their  relative  value.  He  is  thus  enabled  to  select  the 
best  method  for  himself  and  to  modify  it  as  conditions  war- 
rant. The  lectures  by  members  of  the  faculty  regarding  the 
best  methods  of  teaching  the  subject,  come  at  a  time  when 
the  students  have  given  the  subject  considerable  thought, 
hence  are  more  effective.  These  lectures  by  the  professors 
have  also  the  secondary  efifect  of  keeping  the  university  in- 
structors in  closer  touch  with  high  school  needs. 


202  TRAINING  OF  SF.CONDARY  TEACHERS  \^202 

The  study  of  the  historical  development  of  the  method  of 
teaching  various  subjects  of  study  is  a  profitable  one  for 
advanced  students  who  are  looking  forward  to  the  profession 
of  teaching;  far  more  important  in  the  judgment  of  the 
writer  than  an  equal  amount  of  drill  on  a  particular  method. 
We  submit  below  the  outline  on  beginning  reading  taken 
from  the  set  on  methods  of  instruction,  omitting  the  bibli- 
ography. 

Beginning  Reading. 
Preliminary  considerations. 

1.  Importance  of  the  subject. 

{a)  A  key  to  the  store-houses  of  knowledge. 
{b)    The  foundation  of  successful  work  in  other  subjects. 
(c)    A  valuable  aid  to  independent  and  original  thinking. 
{d)   Aids  moral  judgments  by  giving  correct  interpreta- 
tions of  thought. 

2.  Poorly  taught  and  why. 

{a)   Ignorance  of  the  end  in  view. 

(i5)    Force  of  habit  in  continuing  methods  once  used. 

{c)    Tendency  of  teachers  to  seek  methods  requiring  least 

effort. 
(//)   Lack  of  intelligence  in  adapting  the  exercises  to  the 

needs  and  the  capacity  of  the  child. 
(<f)    The  present  low  estimate  placed  upon  the  importance 

of  reading  and  the  inability  of  most  teachers  to 

read  well. 

3.  Nature  of  the  problem. 

{a)  Three  points  to  be  considered  :  the  idea,  the  sound 
by  which  it  is  represented,  and  the  symbol  or 
printed  word. 

(b^  These  are  variously  combined,  as  idea  plus  sound,  as 
in  speaking  ;  sound  plus  idea,  as  in  listening ;  idea 
plus  sign,  as  in  writing ;  sign  plus  idea,  as  in  silent 
reading ;  sign  plus  idea  plus  sound,  as  in  oral 
reading. 

(^)  The  child  knows  many  words  by  sound  but  not  by 
sight. 


203]  PEDAGOGICAL  INSTRUCTION  203 

(</)  The  first  stage  in  reading  is  largely  a  mechanical 
(formal)  process;  the  second,  more  of  a  thought 
process,  ;".  e.,  a  stage  in  which  most  attention  is 
given  to  the  acquisition  of  new  forms,  and  a  stage 
in  which  these  forms  become  lost  in  the  thought 
itself.  Before  the  child  can  read  he  must  know 
words  at  sight.  At  first,  most  attention  must  be 
given  of  necessity  to  form,  or  word  recognition,  but 
as  the  knowledge  of  the  forms  of  words  (sight 
vocabulary)  increases  more  and  more,  attention 
can  be  given  to  the  content. 

4.  To  economize  time  and  enable  the  child  to  read  intelligently 

and  well, 
(a)   Arrange   the  work  in  accordance  with  the  interests 

and  natural  development  of  the  child. 
(^)    Simplify  by  bringing  in  but  few  new  elements  at  a  time, 
(r)    Bring  into  play  as  many  senses  as  possible. 
(</)  Repeat  often  by  varying  the  thought. 

5.  Different  methods  of  teaching  reading. 

I.  Synthetic  method- 
Starting  with  letters,  syllables  or  sounds,  and  gradually 
building  up  words. 
i^a)   Alphabetic  method. 

Learning  to  recognize  letters  by  names  and 
uniting  the  letters  to  make  words. 
{b)    Syllabic  method. 

Meaningless  syllables  are  pronounced  as  a 
foundation  for  reading, 
(f)    Phonic  method. 

The  ordinary  powers  of  the  letters  are  given 
first  with  the  thought  that  the  uttering 
of  the   sounds  of  the  letters  of  a  word 
rapidly  gives  the  sound  of  the  word. 
(^)   Phonetic  method. 

Similar  to  the  above,  with  the  exception  that 
each  of  the  ordinary  letters  is  given  but 
a  single  sound. 


204  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARE    TEACHERS  [204 

New  letters  being  added  to  supply  the  de- 
ficiency. 

II.  Analytic  method. 

Beginning  with  words,  phrases  or  sentences,  and  later 
coming  to  the  parts  through  analysis. 
{a)   Word  method. 

Words  are  considered  the  unit  of  thought 
and  recognized  first  as  wholes. 
{b)    "  Look  and  say  "  method. 

Words  are  recognized  by  their  look  as  wholes 
and  pronounced  without  reference  to  the 
letters  composing  them. 
(£■)    Objective  or  Pictorial  method. 

Where  either  the  object  or  illustrative  draw- 
ings are  used  to  enliven  the  interest  and 
quicken  the  process  of  word  and  thought 
getting. 
(ill)  Sentence  method. 

Here  the  sentence  is  considered  the  unit  of 
thought  and  made  the  basis  of  teaching 
reading,  and  by  analysis,  of  teaching 
words. 

III.  Phono- analytic  methods  are  various  combinations  of 

the  above  methods. 
Pollard  Synthetic  Method. 
(a)   Rational  method. 

A  word  and  phonic  method. 
(^)   Thought  method. 

From  the  first  the  principal  stress  is  placed 

upon  the  thought,  which  is  always  kept 

prominent.     The   object   being   to   help 

the  child  realize  that  reading  is  thought 

getting. 

6.  The  evolution  of  the  methods  of  teaching  reading  and  its 

significance. 

It  was  a  common  practice  with  oriental  people  to  teach 

reading^by  committing  words  and  even  whole  books  to 


205  PEDAGOGICAL  INSTRUCTION  20$ 

memory  without  first  knowing  their  meaning.  The 
Hindu  boy  learned  the  alphabet  by  heart  and  some  ten 
or  twenty  pages  of  Sanskrit  before  understanding  a 
word.  The  Greek  Sophists  were  the  first  to  make  a 
proper  analysis  of  the  alphabet,  probably  400  B.  C. 
After  the  acquisition  of  letters  the  child  passed  to  the 
study  of  syllables  and  syllabizing,  and  then  to  beginning 
reading. 

7.  Criticisms  of  the  various  methods,  including   reasons   for 

using  some  form  of  the  word  or  sentence  method  or 
better  a  combination  of  the  word,  sentence,  and 
phonetic  methods  ;  taken  up  in  the  order  named 
and  after  the  first  few  weeks  used  mutually  to  en- 
force one  another. 

{a)  The  child  first  sees  things  as  wholes. 

{b)  Words  are  the  units  of  ideas.  Words,  phrases  and 
sentences  are  the  units  of  thought.  Letters  are  but 
parts  of  the  forms  of  words,  and  are  more  complex 
to  the  child  than  the  word  itself. 

(r)  Drill  in  rapid  recognition  of  the  words  is  not  reading, 
but  a  valuable  aid  to  it.  Word  getting  should 
never  be  confused  with  thought  getting. 

(</)  More  depends  upon  the  teacher  than  the  method. 

8.  When  shall  reading  be  taught  ? 

{a)  Shall  we  accept  the  views  of  Patrick,  Henderson,  and 

others,  deferring  reading  until  after  ten? 
(^)    Why  reading  should  not  be  deferred  to  a  later  period. 

I  St.  It  is  the  key  to  nearly  all  other  school  studies, 
and  the  means  through  which  the  child  can 
help  itself. 

2d.  By  the  accumulated  experiences  of  the  race 
it  has  become  a  natural  process. 

3d.  Children  of  five  and  six  are  especially  inter- 
ested in  the  names  of  things,  and  have  bet- 
ter memories  for  mere  words  than  children 
of  ten  and  twelve. 

4th.  Children  enjoy  drill  and  are  benefited  by  it, 
if  it  is  intelligently  applied. 


206  TRAINING  OF  SFXONDARY  TEACHERS  [206 

5th.  The  plasticity  of  the  child's  mind  and  its 
freedom  from  extraneous  material  makes  it 
easier  to  acquire  the  mechanics  of  reading 
then,  if  wisely  presented,  than  at  any  other 
time.  (But  a  study  of  form  or  technique 
as  such  should  be  reserved  in  all  subjects 
until  a  later  period.)  The  development 
of  the  senses  should  be  such  as  to  mutually 
enforce  each  other. 
9.  The  aim. 

Good  reading  consists,  first,  in  the  ready  and  accurate  in- 
terpretation of  the  printed  page,  and  second,  in  the  nat- 
ural and  clear  expression  of  the  thoughts  thus  obtained. 
10.  The  school  reader. 

ist.    It  should  be  carefully  graded  and  adapted  to  the  in- 
terest and  comprehension  of  the  children. 
2d.    It   should    be    stimulating   to    the   imagination   and 

elevating  in  tone. 
3d.    It  should    represent   ideas  of  industry,  persistence, 
courage  and  honesty  in  the  form  most  easily  com- 
prehended by  the  child,  and  tend  to  increase  the 
child's  love  for  the  beautiful  and  true. 
4th.  Its  selections  should   represent  complete  wholes  of 

thought  and  possess  literary  merit. 
5th.  The  material  should  have  permanent  value,  and  be 
of  sufficient  interest  to  hold  the  attention  of  the 
child.  In  thought  it  should  be  progressive. 
There  are  many  excellent  books  to  select  from.  I  need 
only  mention  The  Baldwin  Readers,  The  Cyr 
Readers,  the  Werner  Readers,  the  Primers  and  5 
and  10  cent  Classics  of  the  Educational  Publishing 
Co.,  Stepping  Stones  to  Literature,  Silver,  Burdett 
and  Company,  and  Ward's  Rational  Method 
Readers. 

Another  problem  which  is  attracting  much 
interest  and  no  small  amount  of  anxiety  on  the 

TEACHING  ,  •' 

part  of  professors  of  education,  is  that  of  obser- 


2oy']  PEDAGOGICAL  INSTRUCTION  207 

vation  and  practice-teaching.  How  shall  university  students, 
who  are  preparing  to  become  teachers,  obtain  actual  exper- 
ience in  teaching?  Shall  it  be  under  intelligent  supervision 
and  direction  while  yet  connected  with  the  university,  or 
shall  it  be  obtained  wholly  independently  after  they  leave 
the  university?  In  the  latter  case  it  is  often  difficult  for 
them  to  obtain  the  positions  for  which  they  are  best  adapted, 
and  discouragements  are  sure  to  follow,  which  many  times 
prove  fatal. 

School  officers  are  loath  to  employ  teachers  who  have  not 
had  experience,  and  this  is  becoming  more  general  even 
for  the  less  desirable  positions.  Scholarships,  maturity, 
sound  judgment  and  professional  ability  are  often  turned 
aside  for  experience  in  teaching  which  may  mean  much  or 
little  according  to  whether  it  has  been  wisely  directed  and 
intelligently  performed. 

It  is  the  prevailing  opinion  of  professors  of 

HIGH  SCHOOL  ,  , 

TEACHERS  educatiou,  an  opmion  with  which  the  writer 
REQUIRE  LESS   fully  agrees,  that  secondary  teachers,  in  prep- 

pRACTicE-  aration,  require  less  drill  in  practice-teaching 
than  do  elementary  teachers,  some  going  so  far 
as  to  question  the  advisability  or  necessity  of  any  practice- 
teaching  on  the  part  of  secondary  teachers,  though  those 
who  hold  the  latter  view  are  largely  in  the  minority. 

The  reasons  for  thinking  that  less  drill  is  required  of 
secondary  than  of  elementary  teachers  are  quite  apparent. 
It  is  generally  conceded  that  the  high  school  teacher  should 
have  at  least  a  full  college  preparation.  This  requires  time, 
maturity,  and  a  certain  degree  of  culture.  Hence,  the  reasons 
might  be  stated  as  those  of  greater  scholarship  and  maturity, 
broader  culture  and  more  pronounced  professional  training 
upon  which  to  base  intelligent  judgments  for  action. 

Again,  the  nature  of  the  problem  is  different;  the  methods 
of  the  high  school  differ  less  from  the  methods  of  the  college, 


2o8  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [208 

with  which  the  student  is  familiar;  the  ways  of  high  school 
students  are  more  those  of  adult  ways  than  are  those  of 
primary  pupils,  and  it  is  easier  for  the  adult  to  put  himself 
into  touch  with  his  high  school  experiences  than  with  his 
earlier  primary  experiences. 

High  school  teaching  is  of  necessity  more  individualistic 
than  elementary  teaching,  and  the  methods  have  not,  and 
probably  can  not,  become  so  well  established  and  efficient 
as  those  in  primary  education.  High  school  students  are 
better  able  to  help  themselves ;  hence  primary  teaching  is  a 
more  delicate  art  than  secondary  teaching  and  requires 
greater  skill  in  preparation.  It  is  also  true  that  a  larger 
number  of  college  and  university  students  who  are  looking 
forward  to  the  teacher's  profession  have  already  had  some 
experience  in  teaching,  and  consequently  have  less  need  of 
practice. 

There  are  other  reasons  not  so  apparent,  which  probably 
suggest  themselves  to  the  reader,  why  secondary  teachers  in 
the  course  of  preparation  need  less  drill  in  practice  than 
elementary  teachers.  But  a  large  majority  of  those  who 
have  had  anything  to  do  with  the  supervision  and  training 
of  teachers  are  of  the  opinion  that  secondary  teachers  need 
a  certain  amount  of  practice-teaching  under  skillful  direction. 
A  few  would  go  further,  and  say  that  they  required  as  much 
practice  under  direction  as  elementary  teachers. 

Granting   that    practice-teaching  is  a  requi- 

HOW  IS  ...  ,  .  ,  .     .  ,  , 

PRACTICE-      ^^^^   ^"  ^"^   professional   trainmg   of  secondary 

TEACHING      teachers,  the   question  that  immediately  arises 

TO  BE         jg^  How  can  it  be  obtained?     This  is  a  difficult 

OBTAINED?  ^.  ,  e  1       J  J 

question  to  answer.  So  much  depends  upon 
the  environment  and  the  opportunities  which  it  offers.  Even 
normal  schools — the  great  centers  for  the  training  of  ele- 
mentary teachers — are  all  at  sea  regarding  the  solution  of 
this  problem.  Mr.  A.  P.  Hollis,  who  made  a  study  of  "  Prac- 
tice Teaching  in  State  Normal  Schools,"  says: 


209]  PEDAGOGICAL  INSTRUCTION  209 

"  For  convenience  of  reference,  the  syllabus  divided  all 
practice  departments  into  four  classes,  as  follows : 

"  Case  I.  Practice  Department  includes  all  public  schools 
of  the  town. 

"  Case  II.  Practice  Department  consists  of  a  ward  school 
or  schools  not  on  the  Normal  School  grounds,  the  arrange- 
ment being  authorized  by  the  city  board  of  education. 

"Case  III.  Practice  Department  is  in  Normal  school 
building  or  grounds,  pupils  being  sent  to  it  by  authority  of 
city  board. 

"  Case  IV.  Practice  Department  is  in  Normal  school 
building  or  grounds,  and  no  arrangement  existing  with  the 
city,  pupils  attending  from  preference  of  parents." 

He  says  further :  "  At  the  present  writing,  Case  IV.  is  far 
and  away  the  favorite  form  of  practice  departments  among 
all  types  of  Normal  schools,  large  and  small,  east  and 
west."  ' 

Turning  to  university  departments  of  education,  we  find 
somewhat  similar  arrangements  for  practice-teaching,  but 
probably  with  less  consensus  of  opinion  regarding  the  merits 
of  any  one  plan.  In  universities  still  retaining  preparatory 
departments,  or  fitting  schools,  some  opportunity  is  offered 
through  these  for  observation  and  practice.  In  other  uni- 
versities, as  in  the  University  of  California,  city  or  ward 
schools  have  been  designated  by  the  school  board  for  this 
purpose;  in  some  instances  the  university  authorities  are 
made  responsible  for  the  employment  of  the  teachers.  In 
still  other  universities  there  are  both  model  and  experimental 
schools  supported,  controlled,  and  conducted  by  university 
authority,  as  in  the  University  of  Chicago  and  in  Teachers 
College  Columbia  University.  In  these  institutions  the 
model  school  (Horace  Mann  School  in  the  latter)  represents 
all  grades,  beginning  with  the  kindergarten  and  including 
1  Ped.  Sena.,  8 :  496,  508. 


210  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [21O 

the  college,  thus  affording  complete  opportunity  for  observa- 
tion of  the  most  efficient  teaching. 

Then  there  is  the  plan  at  Harvard  University,  where  the 
department  of  education  has  arranged  with  a  number  of 
suburban  towns  and  cities  to  furnish  students  with  observa- 
tion and  substitute  teaching  under  the  immediate  direction 
of  the  local  school  superintendent.  To  this  may  be  added 
the  plan  found  at  Brown  University  which  has  already  been 
partially  described  in  Chapter  III.  It  is  more  fully  de- 
scribed in  a  recent  catalogue  (1901-02)  as  follows:  "By 
special  arrangement  with  the  School  Committee  of  the  city 
of  Providence,  student-teachers  are  appointed  to  places  in 
the  Providence  high  schools.  Appointments  are  made 
from  members  of  the  senior  class  who  have  pursued  the 
undergraduate  courses  in  education.  These  student-teachers 
are  of  two  types.  Those  of  the  first  type — of  which  there 
are  at  least  six  (three  of  each  sex) — under  the  guidance  and 
direction  of  experienced  teachers,  have  the  control  and  con- 
duct of  classes.  The  time  required  each  day  is  somewhat 
more  than  half  the  usual  school  session.  They  receive  from 
the  city  $400  for  their  services  for  the  year.  Those  of  the 
second  type  are  occupied  in  a  similar  way  for  from  three  to 
five  hours  a  week.  They  receive  no  remuneration  from  the 
city.  An  unusual  opportunity  is  thus  afforded  student- 
teachers  to  gain  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  theory  of  edu- 
cation and  at  the  same  time  practical  experience  in  the  art 
of  teaching.  In  making  appointments  to  places  as  teachers 
of  the  lowest  grade  in  the  Providence  high  school,  preference 
is  given  to  those  who  have  successfully  accomplished  the 
course  as  student-teachers.  In  this  respect  student-teachers 
of  the  second  type  have  the  same  status  before  the  committee 
that  makes  appointments  as  those  of  the  first  type." 

This  has  the  appearance  of  an  efficient  plan,  especially 
when    the    university  is    situated    in    or    near  a   city    large 


2 1 1  ]  PEDAGOGICAL  INSTRUCTION  2  1 1 

enough  to  give  the  needed  practice  without  interfering 
with  the  regular  school  work.  The  plan  is  somewhat  sim- 
ilar to  that  employed  in  the  University  of  Nebraska,  which 
is  outlined  below. 

By  an  arrangement  with  the  public   school 
authorities  of  Lincoln,  the  university  students 

FOR  OBSER-  _  •' 

vATioN  AND  ^^^e  given  opportunity  for  observation  and  prac- 
pRACTicE  IN  tice  under  direct  supervision,  covering  both 
THE  uNivER-    elementary  and  high  school  grades.     In  order 

SITY  OF 

»T^T,„»c,..      to  obtain  this  privilege  the  student  must  have 

NEBRASKA  ■■■  '-> 

reached  the  rank  of  senior  and  be  within  one 
year  of  the  requirements  for  the  university  teacher's  certifi- 
cate. During  this  year  of  practical  school  experience  the 
students  carry  on  their  university  work  as  usual,  with  prob- 
ably few  interruptions.  In  the  department  of  education, 
during  the  first  semester  they  take  the  course  in  systems  of 
education,  and  the  second  semester  they  take  the  course  in 
school  supervision  and  management.  These  courses  are 
made  to  supplement  and  strengthen  their  observation  and 
practice  work. 

Partly  for  their  convenience,  and  partly  on  account  of 
their  strength,  the  students  are  divided  into  two  classes : 
cadets  and  student-teachers.  The  former  give  attention 
only  to  observation  of  the  regular  school  work  and  to  the 
assisting  of  the  regular  teacher  in  the  class  work ;  the  latter, 
in  addition  to  the  work  of  cadets,  are  called  upon  as  substi- 
tutes, or  supply  teachers,  to  fill  temporary  vacancies.  Cadets 
receive  no  pay,  but  student-teachers,  when  supplying,  re- 
ceive pay  at  about  one-half  the  usual  salary. 

There  are  fifteen  public  school  buildings  in  the  city,  to 
each  of  which  may  be  assigned  one  or  more  cadets  or 
student-teachers,  depending  upon  the  size  of  the  building 
and  the  number  of  students  registering  for  practice  work. 
Students  visit  the  building  to  which  they  have  been  assigned 


212  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [212 

at  least  twice  a  week,  spending  two  hours  on  each  visit. 
They  report  to  the  principal  for  duty,  and  are  sent  by  her 
to  one  of  the  rooms,  where  they  make  themselves  useful  by 
assisting  the  teacher  in  the  seat  and  class  work  of  the  pupils, 
in  distributing  material,  etc.  In  this  way  they  become  familiar 
with  the  general  plan  of  the  school  work,  with  the  names 
of  most  of  the  pupils ;  so  that,  when  later  they  are  called 
upon  to  supply  temporarily  the  place  of  any  teacher  in  the 
building  to  which  they  have  been  assigned,  they  feel  at 
home,  and  the  pupils  look  upon  and  respect  them  as  regular 
employees  or  teachers.  Consequently  their  success  is  more 
assured,  and  they  gain  experience  under  the  most  favorable 
conditions.  The  student-teacher  obtains  the  needed  prac- 
tice and  the  school  board  the  most  efficient  service  that  can 
be  procured  for  the  outlay.  When  two  or  more  students 
are  assigned  to  the  same  building,  they  arrange  to  have  their 
visits  come  at  different  hours. 

The  position  of  student-teacher  calls  for  more  respon- 
sibility than  that  of  cadet,  since  the  former  may  be  called 
upon  at  any  time  to  supply  in  the  building  to  which  he  has 
been  assigned,  though  the  supply  work  of  any  student- 
teacher  will  probably  not  exceed  ten  days  per  year.  This 
may  seem  to  be  an  insufficient  amount  of  practice-teaching, 
but  when  taken  in  connection  with  the  cadet  work,  which  is 
carried  on  faithfully  throughout  the  year,  it  becomes  ex- 
ceedingly valuable,  and  is  accepted  by  the  school  board  as 
equivalent  to  two  years  of  ordinary  school  experience. 

To  aid  in  giving  strength  and  additional  meaning  to  the 
course  in  observation  and  practice,  the  city  superintendent. 
Dr.  C.  H.  Gordon,  has  been  appointed  university  lecturer  on 
school  supervision  and  given  the  practical  direction  of  the 
cadets  and  student-teachers. 

The  above  plan  of  observation  and  practice  has  been  in 
operation  for  the  past  two  years,  and  while  there  are  a  few 


213]  PEDAGOGICAL  INSTRUCTION  213 

weak  places  that  need  strengthening,  it  has  proved  in  the 
main  thoroughly  satisfactory.  The  students  feel  that  they 
are  doing  work  that  is  really  worth  while,  and  the  school 
authorities  receive,  as  well  as  furnish,  benefit  by  the 
arrangement. 

A  limited  number  of  advanced  students  who  are  carrying 
fewer  hours  of  university  work  are  employed  as  regular 
assistants  to  the  ward  principals,  and  as  assistants  and 
readers  in  the  high  school.  They  give  daily  service,  and 
receive  pay  for  the  same  at  the  rate  of  twenty-five  cents  per 
hour.  This  furnishes  additional  opportunity  for  experience 
in  teaching,  but  it  is  of  necessity  limited  to  a  small  number 
of  strong  students  who  have  sufficient  time  at  their  disposal. 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE  PROFESSIONAL  TRAINING  OF  ELEMENT- 
ARY AND  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS 
COMPARED 

Every  one  who  is  familiar  with  the  nature  of  the  profes- 
sional training  of  teachers  in  Germany,  is  aware  of  the 
specific  differences  made  in  the  training  of  elementary  and 
of  secondary  teachers.  There  is  but  little  in  common. 
The  great  bulk  of  the  instruction  tends  to  make  a  distinct 
gulf  between  the  fields  of  elementary  and  of  secondary  edu- 
cation. The  training  which  the  elementary  teacher  receives, 
while  probably  well  adapted  to  its  purpose,  really  unfits  him 
for  entrance  upon,  or  success  in,  secondary  education. 

In  this  country  there  is  not  that  marked  distinction  made 
between  elementary  and  higher  education,  the  purposes  of 
the  one  not  being  clearly  distinguished  from  those  of  the 
other.  Likewise  in  the  professional  training  of  teachers, 
there  has  been  little  or  no  distinction  made  in  the  prepara- 
tion, regardless  of  the  field  upon  which  the  candidate  is  to 
enter. 

We  have  shown  in  another  chapter  how  the  state  normal 
schools,  created  for  the  distinct  purpose  of  preparing  ele- 
mentary teachers,  naturally  enlarged  their  curricula  to  meet 
the  demands  for  more  efificient  secondary  teachers.  It  was 
simply  the  natural  operation  of  the  law  of  supply  and  de- 
mand. But  this  has  tended  to  make  the  professional  train- 
ing of  all  teachers  the  same  without  regard  to  their  future  field. 

Later,  when  state  universities  took  up  the  problem  of  the 
214  [214 


215]         ELEMENTAR  Y  AND  SECONDAR  Y  TEA CHERS  2 1  5 

professional  training  of  teachers,  the  same  law  of  supply  and 
demand  influenced  them  to  make  the  same  training  answer 
for  both  elementary  and  secondary  teachers.  Hence  it  is 
that  we  find  in  the  same  classes  in  the  history  of  education, 
methods  of  instruction,  etc.,  students,  some  of  whom  are 
preparing  to  become  teachers  in  the  elementary,  and  others 
in  secondary  education.  Is  this  according  to  well-established 
pedagogical  principles? 

Tc  ^TTTrr.r.  A  The  main  problem  which  has  been  raised  for 

IS  THERE  A  ^ 

DIFFERENCE  considcratioH  in  this  chapter,  therefore,  may  be 
IN  THE        stated  as  follows  :   Is  there  sufficient  difference 

METHOD  j^  ^^  methods  to  be  pursued  in  elementary 
and  secondary  education  to  make  a  noticeable  difference  in 
the  preparation  of  teachers  for  the  one  field  or  the  other? 
If  there  is  a  difference,  in  what  does  it  consist? 

Since  the  establishment  of  departments  of  education  in 
colleges  and  universities,  and  the  more  general  spread  and 
development  of  public  high  schools,  there  has  been  a  grow- 
ing feeling  that  the  professional  preparation  of  elementary 
and  secondary  teachers  should  take  place  in  different  classes, 
if  not  in  different  institutions.  On  this  point  Dr.  William  T. 
Harris,  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education,  says:  "I 
have  tried  to  set  down  in  this  paper  the  grounds  for  com- 
mending the  normal  school  as  it  exists  for  its  chosen  work 
of  preparing  teachers  for  the  elementary  schools,  and  at  the 
same  time  urging  the  need  of  training  schools  with  different 
methods  of  preparation  for  the  kindergarten  below,  and  for 
the  secondary  school,  the  college,  and  the  post-graduate 
school  above  the  elementary  school."  ' 

For  the  purpose  of  discovering  how  general  is  the  thought, 
that  there  should  be  different  methods  of  preparatioji  for 
elementary  and  secondary  teachers,  the  writer  submitted  the 

'  The  Future  of  the  Normal  School,  by  Dr.  W.  T.  Harris,  Educational  Review, 
January,  1899. 


2i6  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  \2l6 

above  questions  to  the  presidents  of  the  various  state  normal 
schools,  and  to  the  professors  of  education  in  colleges  and 
universities. 

The  questions  were  sent  out  in  the  spring  of  1900,  and 
were  so  worded  as  to  obtain  the  individual  views  of  this 
large  body  of  educators  who  above  all  others  should  be  able 
to  speak  with  authority  upon  the  subject.  Most  of  them 
have,  no  doubt,  given  to  the  question  much  serious  thought. 
Many  of  them  have  been  engaged  for  years  in  the  profes- 
sional training  of  teachers,  and  have  thus  been  in  positions 
to  make  intelligent  observations. 

The  first  question  might  be  answered  by  the  definite  yes, 
or  no,  and  in  many  cases  that  was  the  form  in  which  the 
answer  was  given.  Returns  were  obtained  from  108  presi- 
dents of  state  normal  schools  and  52  professors  of  education 
in  colleges  and  universities.  As  will  be  seen,  the  returns 
were  quite  general,  representing  all  parts  of  the  United 
States,  and  furnishing  sufficient  material  upon  which  to  base 
intelligent  judgments. 

To  facilitate  comparison,  the  results  which  follow  are 
given  in  per  cent. 

In  answer  to  the  question,  Is  there  sufficient  difference  in 
the  methods  to  be  pursued  in  elementary  and  secondary 
education  to  make  a  noticeable  difference  in  the  preparation 
of  teachers  for  the  one  field,  or  the  other?  34  per  cent,  of 
the  state  normal  school  presidents  answered  in  the  affirma- 
tive and  66  per  cent,  answered  in  the  negative.  Of  those 
answering  in  the  affirmative  8  per  cent,  qualified  their  an- 
swers, and  of  those  answering  in  the  negative  20  per  cent, 
qualify  their  answers.  To  illustrate:  "Yes,  if  methods,  as 
used  above,  include  course  of  study  and  training  in  teach- 
ing." '    "  Yes,  in  the  different  emphasis  to  be  laid  on  methods 

»  D.  J.  Waller,  Jr.,  Prin.  State  Normal  School,  Indiana,  Pa. 


2 1 7]  ELEMENT  A  R  V  AND  SE  CONDAR  Y  TEA  CHERS  2 1 J 

in  comparison  with  principles  of  teaching."'  Or:  "No,  but 
there  are  practical  difficulties  here  in  Massachusetts  which 
settle  the  question  for  our  normal  schools." '  "  No,  unless 
it  be  in  scholarship."  3  "  No,  methods  are  methods  for  all, 
and  are  best  mastered  with  elementary  work  and  elementary 
pupils." ■♦  "No,  principles  are  the  same,  teaching  different; 
the  teacher  of  small  children  makes  more  use  of  devices."  ' 
■"  I  do  not ;  the  same  psychology  and  philosophy  underlie 
both."  ^  "  No ;  the  theory  of  education  in  high  school 
teaching  is  not  very  different  from  that  of  elementary  educa- 
tion, yet  there  is  a  treatment  of  the  subject  of  a  higher  order 
because  of  the  development  of  the  pupil  that  calls  for  a 
different  adaptability  of  the  work."  ^ 

By  far  the  larger  number  of  affirmative  answers  came  from 
the  following  states  in  about  the  order  named:  Vermont, 
California,  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  West  Virginia,  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  Massachusetts.  These  states  furnished  90  per 
cent,  of  the  affirmative  replies  and  less  than  20  per  cent,  of 
the  negative  ones.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  in  most  of 
these  states  the  school  law  requires  that  the  high  school 
teacher  be  a  college  graduate. 

In  response  to  the  above  question,  82  per  cent,  of  the 
professors  of  education  in  colleges  and  universities  answered 
in  the  affirmative,  being  of  the  opinion  that  there  is  a  differ- 
ence in  the  methods  to  be  used  in  the  preparation  of 
elementary  and  secondary  teachers;  18  per  cent,  thought 
there  is  no  difference,  or  if  a  difference  it  is  slight.     Most  of 

'  Edward  Conant,  Prin.  State  Normal  School,  Johnson,  Vt. 
'Chas.  S.  Chapin,  Prin.  State  Normal  School,  Westfield,  Mass. 

*  John  M.  Milne,  Prin.  State  Normal  School,  Gencseo,  N.  Y. 

*  Francis  B.  Palmer,  Prin.  State  Normal  School,  Fredonia,  N.  Y. 

•  C.  L.  Hayes,  Prin.  State  Normal  School,  De  Funiak  Springs,  Fla. 

•  W.  M.  Stewart,  Prin.  State  Normal  School,  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah. 
^  H.  H.  Secrley,  Pres.  State  Normal  School,  Cedar  Falls,  Iowa. 


2  1 8        TRAINING  OF  SE  CONDAR  Y  TEA  CHERS  [218 

those  who  answered  in  the  affirmative  were  decided  in  their 
opinions.  A  few,  however,  in  both  classes  qualified  their 
answers :  as  "  Yes,  there  is  a  difference,  but  the  danger  per- 
haps lies  in  insisting  on  it  too  much ;  "  '  "  Not  as  regards 
their  professional  training;  "  "  "There  is  no  such  difference 
as  is  meant  by  those  who  would  arbitrarily  mark  off  one 
part  of  the  work  of  preparing  teachers  for  one  class  of 
schools  and  another  part  for  another  class  of  schools;"  3 
"  Yes,  if  by  the  word  methods  one  means  everything  that 
pertains  to  secondary  work;"*  "Under  proper  conditions, 
no,  under  present  conditions,  yes;"5  "Yes,  the  difference 
consists  largely  in  additional  secondary  training."  ^ 
REASONS  FOR  ^^  therc  is  a  difference  in  the  methods  to  be 
DIFFERENCE  IN  uscd  in  thc  preparation  of  elementary  and 
METHOD.       secondary  teachers,  in  what  does  it  consist? 

As  might  have  been  anticipated,  most  of  those  who  re- 
sponded to  the  first  question  with  the  statement  that  there  is 
no  difference,  omitted  the  second  question  regarding  the 
nature  of  the  difference.  A  few  of  these,  however,  re- 
sponded to  the  second  question  giving  the  reasons  for  their 
faith. 

In  this  connection  we  are  interested  most,  to  be  sure,  in 
the  thought  of  those  who  believe  that  there  is  a  difference. 
Nevertheless  we  present  a  few  of  the  negative  views  along 
with  many  affirmative  ones  in  order  to  give  greater  variety 
and  clearer  setting.  We  quote  first  from  the  replies  of  nor- 
mal school  principals,  and  later  from  professors  of  education 
in  colleges  and  universities. 

'  W.  G.  Smith,  Smith  College,  Northampton,  Mass. 

*  R.  N.  Roark,  Kentucky  State  College,  Lexington,  Ky. 

*  J.  J.  McConnell,  State  University  of  Iowa,  Iowa  City,  Iowa. 

*  D.  R.  Majors,  Ohio  State  University,  Columbus,  Ohio. 

*  D.  E.  Phillips,  University  of  Denver,  Denver,  Colorado. 

*  Arthur  AUin,  University  of  Colorado,  Boulder,  Colorado. 


219]         ELEMENTARY  A^'D  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  219 

We   realize   that  this   subject  is   one  upon   which  public 

opinion  is  rapidly  changing,  and  since  the  quotations  given 

below  were  obtained  in  the  spring  of   1900  they  may  not  in 

all  cases  represent  the  writers'  present  views. 

VIEWS  OF  NOR-       "  There  is  no  difference,  as  I  understand  it, 

MAL  SCHOOL    itt  the  principles  of  methods  to  be  pursued,  but 

PRINCIPALS,  there  must  be  a  difference  in  the  amount  of 
work  done  per  day  and  to  some  extent  in  what  is  done, 
since  allowance  must  be  made  for  the  age  of  pupils  taught. 
Higher  scholarship  should,  of  course,  be  required  of  those 
who  are  preparing  themselves  for  secondary  work."  ' 

"  A  different  set  of  tools,  the  principles  are  the  same. 
There  is  work  to  be  done  in  adding  skill  in  application  of 
the  same  principles,  and  normal  schools  do  not  generally 
get  time  to  secure  this  for  secondary  instruction."  * 

"There  should  be  a  review  of  the  common  branches  by 
one  expecting  to  teach  them,  in  the  light  of  higher  studies. 
Extended  and  continuous  practice  is  more  necessary  for 
those  in  the  elementary  stage."  3 

"  If  a  man  or  woman  can  successfully  instruct  the  youth 
of  our  public  schools,  he  has  mastered  the  art  of  arts  well 
enough  to  teach  anywhere.  I  must  dissent  from  the  able 
authority  referred  to."  ^ 

"  Such  a  proposition  is  arrant  nonsense.  That  dogma  is 
already  the  prevailing  notion  of  ignorant  people.  It  is 
already  in  operation.  Discrimination  in  favor  of  the  high 
school  has  done  irreparable  injury  by  turning  over  the 
grammar  school  boys  and  girls  to  a  race  of  stupid,  insipid, 
lifeless  women  who  are  incapacitated  for  all  teaching."  ^ 

'  John  M.  Milne,  Prin.  State  Normal  School,  Geneseo,  N.  Y. 
'  Francis  B.  Palmer,  Prin.  State  Normal  School,  Fredonia,  N.  Y. 

*  D.  J.  "Waller,  Jr„  Prin.  State  Normal  School,  Indiana,  Pa. 
*L.  J.  Corbly,  Prin.  Marshall  College,  Huntington,  W.  Va. 

*  John  R.  Kirk,  Prin.  State  Normal  School,  Kirksville,  Mo. 


220  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [2 20 

"There  is  a  great  difference  between  the  play  of  the 
kindergarten  and  the  systematic,  self-directed,  and  strong 
work  of  a  well-trained  senior  of  a  secondary  school.  The 
gradual  change  of  work  from  lowest  primary  to  highest 
secondary  corresponds  with  the  needed  change  in  methods 
of  teaching,  and  creates  the  difference  in  extremes.  It 
seems  too  much  for  the  normal  school  to  try  to  cover  the 
field  of  thirteen  grades  successfully.  Let  there  be  a  division 
of  work,  giving  six  years  to  the  secondary  class,  and  the 
normal  school  will  still  have  enough  work.  Training  for 
primary  work  is  not  the  best  training  for  secondary.  The 
difference  is  sufficiently  noticeable  to  warrant  two  classes  of 
training  schools."  ' 

"  One  essential  qualification  of  any  teacher,  in  my  mind, 
is  an  intimate  and  personal  knowledge  of  the  beings  he  is  to 
teach.  Secondary  teachers  deal  chiefly  with  adolescents; 
elementary  teachers  with  pupils  before  they  have  reached 
the  adolescent  period.  Because  of  this  fact  there  should  he 
considerable  difference  in  the  training  of  elementary  and 
secondary  teachers.  Elementary  teachers  should  constantly 
study  and  be  in  the  presence  of  children  of  the  ages  they  are 
to  teach.  They  should  become  as  intimate  with  children  of 
these  ages  as  may  be  possible  in  the  school-room,  on  the 
play-ground,  and  even  in  the  home.  Secondary  teachers, 
on  the  other  hand,  should  have  the  same  relations  with  older 
children,  or  adolescents.  As  far  as  subject-matter  goes, 
elementary  teachers  should  have  just  as  good  an  education 
as  secondary  teachers." ' 

"  The  chief  difference  consists  in  the  different  methods  that 
must  be  used  in  the  different  grades,  due  to  the  process  of 
mental  development  in  the  child.  Of  course,  the  division 
of  elementary  and  secondary  education  is  arbitrary,  but,  in 

*  "Walter  E.  Ranger,  Prin,  State  Normal  School,  Johnson,  Vt. 

*  John  G.  Thompson,  Prin.  State  Normal  School,  Fitchburg,  Mass. 


32l]         ELEMENTARY  AND  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  221 

general,  it  represents  the  beginning  of  the  period  of  adoles- 
cence, when  the  child's  mental  activity  and  capacity  are 
greatly  accelerated.  Hence,  the  methods  must  be  changed 
considerably." ' 

"The  difference  consists  in  the  greater  emphasis  which 
should  be  placed  upon  the  empiric  methods  in  the  lower 
grades  and  the  rational  in  the  upper." " 

"  I  think  there  is  no  doubt  that  Dr.  Harris  expresses  an 
important  truth  in  his  analysis  of  the  subject  of  methods  for 
the  different  grades  of  educational  work.  At  the  same  time, 
it  is  impossible  to  draw  hard  and  fast  lines  that  will  separate 
secondary  school  work  from  grade  work,  on  the  one  hand, 
in  its  method,  or  from  the  university,  on  the  other  hand,  in 
its  method.  Following  the  principle  that  a  teacher  of  any 
grade  should  have  mastered  the  subject-matter  of  the  next 
educational  step  beyond  that  in  which  he  is  teaching,  I  be- 
lieve that  it  is  equally  true  that  any  teacher's  knowledge  and 
appreciation  of  methods  of  work  should  include  the  methods 
to  be  used  in  the  grades  of  educational  work  both  above  and 
below  that  in  which  he  is  teaching."  3 

"The  difference  is  determined  by  the  difference  of  mind 
of  pupils  taught.  Pupils  in  elementary  schools  are  seven  to 
fifteen  years  old ;  in  secondary  schools  from  thirteen  to 
twenty.  The  mental  development  of  the  two  groups  varies 
widely."  ♦ 

"  In  the  instincts  that  develop  at  these  periods.  Secondly, 
the  scholarship  of  normal  graduates  quite  unfits  them  as 
teachers  in  secondary  schools."  ^ 

^  Chas.  B.  Dyke,  Head  of  Normal  Department,  Hampton,  Va. 
'  W.  H.  Cheever,  Pre».  State  Normal  School,  Milwaukee,  Wis. 

*  Geo.  R.  Kleeberger,  Pres.  State  Normal  School,  St.  Cloud,  Minn. 

*  Geo.  A.  McFarland,  Prin.  State  Normal  School,  Valley  City,  N.  Dakota. 

*  Frederick  Burk,  State  Normal  School,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 


222  TRAINIXG  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [222 

"  The  difference  between  the  child  and  the  adolescent. 
For  both  some  principles  are  alike,  many  are  different."  * 

VIEWS  OF  "  ^^^    fundamentals    are    the    same  in   both 

PROFESSORS  OF  cases ;   the  nature  of  the  being  to  be  educated, 

EDUCATION  ^i^g  means  in  view  of  that  nature,  the  environ- 
ment, and  the  principles  of  education."  ^ 

"  The  fundamentals  are  the  same  in  either  case.  The 
difference  is  mainly  in  the  practice,  which  should  ever  be 
subordinate  to  a  comprehension  of,  and  even  a  saturation 
with,  the  fundamentals."  3 

"  The  difference  consists  for  the  most  part  of  the  methods 
of  instruction  to  be  followed.  Without  going  into  particu- 
lars, I  may  say  that  the  proper  adjustment  of  inductive  and 
deductive  teaching  for  the  grades,  and  especially  the  lower 
grades,  is  not  the  same  thing  as  the  proper  adjustment  for 
the  secondary  schools."  ■♦ 

"  One  special  difference  is  that  the  secondary  teachers 
should  give  special  attention  to  the  psychology  of  adoles- 
cence. The  study  of  adolescence  should  hold  the  same 
place  in  the  preparation  of  the  secondary  teacher,  that  child 
study  does  in  that  of  the  elementary  teacher."  s 

"  The  fundamental  difference  is  a  difference  between  the 
classes  of  students,  necessitating  a  difference  in  the  treat- 
ment of  the  subject  matter.  The  difference  between  the 
students  is  a  difference  in  scholarship  and  corresponding 
mental  power.  The  secondary  school  teacher  should  always 
be  a  college  graduate.  The  elementary  need  not  be.  This 
difference  renders  it  impossible  to  address  the  same  instruc- 

*  C.  C.  Van  Liew,  State  Normal  School.  Chico,  Cal. 

*  Julia  E.  Buckley,  formerly  of  Chicago  University. 

*  D.  E.  Phillips,  University  of  Denver,  Col, 

*  B.  A.  Hinsdale,  late  of  the  University  of  Michigan. 

*  W.  H.  Burnham,  Clark  University,  Worcester,  Mass. 


223]  ELEMENTARY  AND  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  223 

tion  in  scope  and  in  intensity  to  both  classes  of  students  at 
the  same  time."  ' 

"/«  addition  to  what  the  elementary  teacher  needs,  the 
secondary  teacher  needs  the  broad  general  culture  best 
secured  by  a  college  education  and  high  professional  train- 
ing, as  high  as  the  best  professional  training  in  law  and  in 
medicine."  ^ 

"  The  elementary  teacher  cannot  afford  to  do  without 
child  study,  and  should  be  familiar  with  kindergarten 
method,  even  though  she  has  not  a  special  kindergarten 
training.  The  primary  teacher  should  have  a  great  deal  of 
practice  work  in  her  preparation,  and  should  know  some- 
thing of  a  large  number  of  subjects,  while  she  does  not  need 
to  be  a  specialist  in  any.  The  secondary  teacher  has  not  the 
same  use  for  child  psychology,  does  not  need  to  know  so 
much  of  the  kindergarten  methods,  and  will  probably  suc- 
ceed with  less  practice  work."  3 

"The  child  needs  more  guidance  and  help.  The  subject 
matter  must  be  adapted  in  a  far  greater  degree  for  children. 
In  giving  instruction  it  is  more  important  to  know  the  full 
psychic  personality  of  children  than  of  grown-up  people. 
In  primary  work  the  minds  of  teacher  and  pupil  are  not  so 
nearly  on  parity  with  each  other."  ■♦ 

"  The  basis  of  education  is  different.  Secondary  instruc- 
tion and  education  should  recognize  the  existence  of  adoles- 
cence, which  has  little  importance  in  primary  schools. 
There  is  a  different  individual  outlook,  hence  the  work 
should  be  in  the  hands  of  teachers  who  have  been  trained 
for  secondary  education."  s 

*  Paul  H.  Hanus,  Harvard  University,  Cambridge,  Mass. 

*  A.  F.  West,  Princeton  University,  N.  J. 

'  Celestia  S.  Parrish,  Randolph  Macon  Woman's  College,  Lynchburg,  Va« 

*  T.  C.  Karns,  formerly  University  of  Tennessee,  Knoxville. 

*  A.  H.  Yoder,  University  of  Washington,  Seattle. 


33^  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [324 

"There  is  essential  similarity  on  principles  and  methods 
for  all  schools ;  but  in  practice,  those  preparing  to  teach  in 
high  schools  have  studied  longer,  have  in  general  perhaps 
more  ability  and  higher  aspirations,  that  pedagogy  with 
them  may  be  treated  in  a  much  more  advanced  way.  There 
are  besides,  of  course,  differences  between  elementary 
schools  and  high  schools  in  subjects,  history,  general  social 
function,  so  as  to  make  high  school  pedagogy  a  distinct 
subject." ' 

"  Methods  suitable  to  children  fail  when  applied  to  boys 
and  girls  passing  into  adolescence.  The  awakening  man 
and  woman  need  different  treatment  than  that  suitable  for 
children."  » 

"  We  all  tend  to  project  ourselves  into  others ;  we  natur- 
ally teach  others  in  the  way  in  which  we  think  we  would 
best  learn  ourselves.  Now,  the  mind  of  the  pupil  in  the 
secondary  school  works  in  the  same  way,  in  essential  re- 
spects, as  the  mind  of  the  adult;  while  the  same  is  not  so 
true  of  the  mind  of  the  child  in  the  first  grades.  It  is  a  very 
different  problem  to  guide  a  mind  attacking  arithmetic  for 
the  first  time  from  what  it  is  to  direct  it  when  it  is  mastering 
geometry  in  the  high  school.  The  first  grade  pupil  is  on 
such  a  different  plane  with  respect  to  practically  all  he  has 
to  learn  from  the  adult  who  teaches  him,  that  long  and  careful 
study  is  required  to  give  the  teacher  that  knowledge  which 
can  make  his  teaching  appropriate  and  efficient.  I  would 
not  say  that  there  is  such  a  difference  in  method  in  its 
essential  principles  as  in  the  knowledge  in  the  mind  of  the 
pupil  which  is  required  for  intelligent  understanding  on  the 
part  of  the  teacher."  3 

'  John  A.  Bergstrom,  Indiana  University,  Bloomington. 

*  S.  D.  Brooks.  University  of  Illinois,  Champaign. 

*  M.  V.  O'Shea,  University  of  Wisconsin,Ma  dison. 


225]         ELEMENT  A  R  V  AA'D  SE  CONDAR  Y  TEA  CHERS  2  2  J 

"  Secondary  school  students  are  more  intelligently  self- 
conscious  as  a  rule.  Consequently  they  view  themselves 
and  the  world  under  other  categories.  They  take  causal 
relations  among  natural  phenomena  more  seriously,  and 
work  with  a  more  intelligent  sense  of  the  significance  of 
school  life  to  themselves  and  to  others ;  hence  the  differ- 
ences in  methods  of  teaching."  ' 

"  In  preparation  for  elementary  schools,  training  must  be 
prominent,  theory  and  psychology  must  be  concrete.  In 
college  the  treatment  should  be  historic  and  philosophical."^ 

"  The  difiference  between  elementary  and  secondary 
schools  is  about  the  same  kind  of  difference  that  exists  be- 
tween the  primary  school  and  the  grammar  school.  Pupils 
require  treatment  that  is  suited  to  their  ages  year  by  year. 
As  a  pupil  grows  older  he  becomes  a  stronger  person,  and 
his  treatment  by  his  teacher  should  change  accordingly. 

"  It  seems  to  me  that  the  difiference  of  which  you  are 
speaking  is  a  sort  of  arbitrary  one  which  has  been  assumed, 
because  it  seems  to  meet  the  exigencies  of  our  system  of 
educational  organization.  Of  course,  allowance  must  be 
made  in  school  administration  for  adolescence  and  other 
incidents  of  school  life,  but  these  are  problems  which,  I 
think,  are  not  contemplated  in  your  questions. 

"  The  university  can  do  real  university  work  of  high  order 
in  fitting  teachers  for  a  primary  school,  and  if  its  circum- 
stances seem  to  warrant  the  doing  of  this  kind  of  work,  it 
ought  not  to  be  debarred  by  the  fear  of  getting  into  normal 
school  territory."  3 

"  The  teacher  must  know  his  pupils.  One  may  know 
pupils  of  the  elementary  school  years  and  still  be  in  utter 
darkness  regarding  the   make-up  of  high  school  pupils.     I 

^  G.  A.  Townly,  Beloit  College,  Beloit,  Wis. 

'  D.  L.  Kiehle,  University  of  Minn.,  Minneapolis. 

'  J.  J.  McConnell,  formerly  of  the  University  of  Iowa,  Iowa  City. 


226  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [226 

am  positive  that  the  special  training  for  a  high  school 
teacher  should  be  different  from  that  of  an  elementary 
teacher."' 

"  The  widely  different  psychology  of  youth  of  high  school 
age;  emotions,  ideals,  reason,  versus  sense  training.  The 
discipline  should  be  very  different."  '^ 

"  More  special  study  of  early  phases  of  child  development 
for  one,  and  of  adolescent  phases  for  the  other ;  each  should 
know  both,  however."  ^ 

"The  methods  of  instruction  in  secondary  schools  approx- 
imate somewhat  more  nearly  to  the  methods  of  scholarly 
research.  The  teachers  in  those  schools  need  to  be  in 
closer  touch  with  university  research  than  it  is  possible  for 
the  great  body  of  elementary  teachers  to  be."  ^ 

"  In  the  quantity  of  scholarship  upon  which  to  base  pro- 
fessional training;  different  kind  of  knowledge  needed; 
different  amounts  of  the  same  subject  needed,  as,  for  ex- 
ample, in  sciences."  s 

"All  secondary  teachers  should  have  a  certain  amount  of 
professional  training.  The  science  of  education,  history  of 
education,  and  the  methods  of  elementary  education  ought 
certainly  to  be  a  part  of  their  course.  In  addition,  they 
ought  to  have  a  thorough  training  in  secondary  educational 
problems.  The  difference  consists  largely  in  this  additional 
secondary  training."  ^ 

"I.  In  material  to  be  used,  which  requires  a  different 
method  of  treatment.     2.  In  character  of  the  pupils,  which 

•  D.  R.  Major,  Ohio  State  University,  Columbus. 

•  E.  G.  Lancaster,  Colorado  College,  Colorado  Springs. 

•  A.  Casewell  Ellis,  University  of  Texas,  Austin. 

•  Elmer  E.  Brown,  University  of  California,  Berkeley. 

•  Ellwood  P.  Cubberly,  Leland  Stanford  University,  California. 

•  Arthur  Allin,  University  of  Colorado,  Boulder. 


227]         ELEMENTARY  AND  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  227 

requires  study  of  adolescence  and   kindred  topics  in  psy- 
chology." ' 

We  have  quoted  somewhat  freely  from  the  expressions  of 
those  who  think  that  there  ought  to  be  a  difference  in  the 
method  of  training  elementary  and  secondary  teachers,  be- 
cause we  have  felt  that  there  is  sufficient  value  in  the  mate- 
rial to  prove  of  interest.  We  have  endeavored  to  report 
accurately  the  thoughts  of  others  upon  the  subject,  in  so  far 
as  expression  has  been  given,  and  are  ready  to  assume  the 
responsibility  for  mistakes  of  thought  or  language.  The  aim 
has  been  to  give  variety  of  content  rather  than  extension  of 
individual  views,  the  latter  being  preferred  when  it  could  be 
accomplished  without  too  great  repetition.  It  is  thought 
that  the  quotations  ofTered  cover  in  the  main  all  the  reasons 
that  were  advanced  for  the  difiference  in  method. 

It  is  of  interest  to  note  the  somewhat  marked 
MARKED       differences    of    opinion    between    the    normal 

DIFFERENCES  ... 

OF  OPINION  school  principals  and  the  college  professors  of 
education.  As  will  be  remembered,  66  per 
cent,  of  the  former  were  of  the  opinion  that  there  is  not 
sufficient  difference  in  the  methods  to  be  pursued  in  element- 
ary and  secondary  education  to  make  a  noticeable  difference 
in  the  preparation  of  teachers  for  the  one  field  or  the  other, 
while  82  per  cent,  of  the  college  professors  were  of  the 
opinion  that  the  difference  is  sufficiently  great  to  necessitate 
a  difference  in  the  training  of  the  teachers.  It  has  occurred 
to  the  writer  that  the  difference  of  opinion  might  not  have 
been  so  pronounced  had  the  matter  been  referred  to  profes- 
sors of  psychology  and  education  in  normal  schools  instead 
of^the  principals.  But  there  is  no  doubt  that  environment 
has^had  much  to  do  in  shaping  individual  opinions.  Too 
often  it  is  true,  that  "whatever  is,  is  right." 

'  Jas.  R.  Russell,  Teachers'  College  Columbia  University,  New  York  City. 


228  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [228 

Up  to  the  present  time  in  the  United  States,  with  the 
single  exception  of  the  kindergarten  and  a  few  special  insti- 
tutions, there  has  been  little  or  no  discrimination  made  in 
the  professional  preparation  of  elementary  and  secondary 
teachers,  and  many  people  have  come  to  look  upon  this 
uniform  training  as  the  proper  thing.  The  training  must  be 
of  a  general  nature,  fitting  the  student  equally  well  for  any 
and  all  fields,  but  properly  and  efficiently  for  no  field.  As 
many  students  become  teachers  without  any  special  prepara- 
tion, it  may  be  maintained  that  this  general  training  is  better 
than  no  training;  and  so  it  is,  but  the  time  has  probably 
come  in  which  to  make  the  training  more  specific. 

The  more  important  reasons  that  have  been 
THE  DIFFER-    ^gslgned  for  the  difTerences  in  the  methods  of 

ENCES IN  .  ,  1  1  , 

METHOD       preparation     of     elementary     and     secondary 

teachers,  may  be  stated  briefly  as  follows:   (i) 

an  academic  difference ;   (2)  a  professional  difference ;   and 

(3)  a  difference  due  to  the  inherent  nature  of  children  of 

different  ages. 

The  academic  difference  is  one  of  scholarship  and  speciali- 
zation, greater  maturity  of  thought  and  judgment,  more 
strength  and  ability  in  working  out  original  problems.  This 
is  taking  for  granted  that  the  secondary  teacher  is  a  college 
graduate  and  somewhat  of  a  specialist,  while  the  elementary 
teacher  is  probably  not  a  college  graduate,  or  if  a  graduate, 
has  given  less  attention  to  specialization. 

The  professional  difference  is  one  that  results,  in  part, 
from  the  nature  and  previous  training  of  the  students  receiv- 
ing the  instruction,  and,  in  part,  from  the  nature  of  the 
future  work  to  which  they  are  to  apply  the  instruction.  For 
instance,  no  one  who  is  at  all  familiar  with  the  subject  would 
think  of  treating  the  history  of  education  in  the  same  way  to 
classes  composed  of  university  seniors  on  the  one  hand,  and 
high  school  graduates    or  normal  school   students   on  the 


229]         ELEMENTARY  AND  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  229 

Other,  no  matter  what  might  be  the  future  aim  of  the 
student.  Neither  is  one  justified  in  giving  a  course  on 
special  methods  of  teaching  the  various  high  school  subjects 
to  a  student  in  preparation  for  primary  teaching. 

The  differences  which  come  under  this  head  in  the 
preparation  of  secondary  teachers  may  be  stated  as  follows : 
more  attention  to  theory  and  the  general  principles  of  edu- 
cation, and  less  to  practice,  empiric  methods  and  devices; 
more  stress  placed  upon  the  historical  and  philosophical 
treatment  of  the  subject;  special  method  as  against  general 
method ;  with  probably  less  attention  given  to  details  and 
the  simplification  of  processes. 

The  third  difYerence  or  that  due  to  the  nature  of  the  chil- 
dren to  be  instructed  may  be  summed  up  in  the  difference 
between  the  child  and  the  adolescent.  The  secondary 
teacher  must  study  the  nature  of  the  adolescent  as  the  ele- 
mentary teacher  studies  the  nature  of  the  child.  Each 
should  have  a  general  knowledge  of  both  fields,  but  the  one 
must  be  especially  familiar  with  the  psychology  of  child- 
hood, and  the  other  with  the  psychology  of  adolescence. 
The  method  of  the  professional  training  of  teachers  will 
naturally  be  adjusted  so  as  to  fit  the  student  most  appropri- 
ately for  the  field  into  which  he  is  to  enter. 

To   express  the  matter  in  another  way,  all 

THE  DIFFER-    differences  to  be  observed  in  the  methods  of 

ENCES  IN 

METHOD  DUE  TO  ^"^  profcssioual  training  of  elementary  and  of 

DIFFERENCES    sccondary  teachers  must  rest  ultimately  in  the 

BETWEEN      nature  of  the  child.     If  there  is  sufhcient  differ- 

CHILDHOOD  .  ,  ,  1         1  ,       1  1   -ij 

»,«„  vr^TTTu     ence   m  the   nature  and   outlook  of  the  child 

AND  YOUTH 

from  that  of  the  adolescent  or  adult  to  necessi- 
tate a  different  way  of  approach,  and  a  different  method  of 
instruction,  then  there  should  be  a  difference  made  in  the 
preparation  of  elementary  and  secondary  teachers.  But  if 
the    child   does   not  differ  materially  in  his  general  nature 


230  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [230 

from  the  adolescent,  then  it  is  unnecessary  to  lay  stress 
upon  any  difference  to  be  made  in  the  preparation  of 
teachers.  Prospective  primary  teachers  may  continue  with 
equal  propriety  in  the  same  professional  studies  and  in  the 
same  classes  with  prospective  high  school  teachers. 

We  are  still  too  ignorant  of  the  true  psychology  of  child- 
hood and  of  youth  to  answer  this  question  finally  or  even 
definitely.  But  the  study  of  children  has  gone  far  enough, 
in  late  years,  to  assist  us  in  forming  intelligent  judgments. 
These  studies  indicate  that  there  is  a  marked  difference  be- 
tween the  child  and  the  youth,  a  difference  so  great  as  to 
necessitate  a  wholly  different  manner  of  approach.  We 
have  endeavored  to  express  this  difference  in  a  form  for 
comparison,  but  we  realize  the  difficulty  of  drawing  hard- 
and-fast  lines  that  will  truly  represent  growing  individuality, 
and  have  given  the  characterization  that  follows  simply  as  a 
suggestion  and  as  an  approximation  to  truth. 


231]         ELEMENT  A  R  Y  AND  SECOND AR  Y  TEA  CHERS 
Predominant  Elements  at  Different  Periods 


231 


Child. 

1.  Sensation,  feeling,  doing. 

2.  Sensory,   self-consciousness,   i.    e., 

play-activity,  in  which  means  and 
end  are  one — not  separated. 

3.  Vegetative  stage,  receptive,  reten- 

tive, expressive. 

4.  Physical  activity  foremost. 

5.  Imitative,  especially  in  the  field  of 

concrete  images  and  events  (un- 
conscious imitation),  symbolizes. 

6.  Impulsive,     vacillating,     attention 

changeable. 

7.  Will  weak,  somewhat  passive. 

8.  Talkative,  frank,  open. 

9.  Obedient,  submitting  to  authority. 

10.  Dependent,   confiding,  appreciates 

definite  answers. 

11.  Gathering  facts,  looking  out. 

12.  Lives  in  the  present,  an  objective 

life,  memory  and  imagination 
deal  with  the  outside  world — ex- 
ternalities. 


13.  Planning  for  the  present;  the  chief 
interest  ends  with  the  thing  itself. 


14.  Animal  instincts,  sensation  and 
simple  feeling,  largely  selfish  or 
self-centered. 


Youth. 

1.  Judgment,  emotion,  willing. 

2.  Motor     self- consciousness,    i.     e., 

games  and  work  in  which  means 
and  end  are  separate  and  distinct. 

3.  Intellectual  stage,  interested  in  re- 

lations, classifying,  harmonizing, 
unifying. 

4.  Psychic  activity  foremost. 

5.  Higher  form  of  imitation,  imitating 

acts  and  ideals  (conscious  imita- 
tion) constructive. 

6.  Thoughtful,    more   stable,   greater 

concentration  of  attention. 

7.  Will  strong,  persistent,  active. 

8.  Inhibitive,  evasive,  often  morbid. 

9.  Self-assertive,    fretting    under    re- 

straint, desiring  greater  freedom. 

10.  Becoming  independent,  self-reliant, 

secretive,  doubting,desiring  proof, 
prefers  suggestive  answers. 

11.  Relating,  classifying    facts,   intro- 

spective, reflective. 

12.  Looking  to  the  future,  a  subjective 

life,  memories  assimulations  se- 
quential, richer  and  more  lasting, 
imagination  deals  with  events  in 
which  the  invidual  plays  an  im- 
portant role. 

13.  Planning  for  the  future,  desire  of 

conquest;  chief  interest  not  in 
things,  but  in  their  origin  and 
reason  for  being. 

14.  Emotional  life   prominent,  sympa- 

thy, love,  admiration,  devotion, 
worship,  esteem;  hatred,  jealousy, 
disrespect, contempt;  truth, good- 
ness, beauty,  virtue;  probably  al- 
truistic. 


232 


TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS 


[232 


There  are  in  the  above  table  some  repetitions  and  over- 
lappings  which  were  made  necessary  in  order  to  facilitate 
comparison.  Other  differences  might  have  been  added,  but 
probably  a  sufficient  number  have  been  given  to  make  clear 
the  point  under  consideration. 

The  place  where  childhood  ends  and  youth  begins  is  a 
continuous  rather  than  a  clearly  marked  line,  and  yet  the 
characterization  given  above  represents  with  fair  accuracy  the 
great  differences  in  the  nature  of  the  child  on  the  one  hand, 
and  the  youth  on  the  other. 


WHAT  SHALL  BK 

THE  NATURE 

OF  THE 

INSTRUCTION?  youth? 


What  does  this  suggest  regarding  the  meth- 
ods   of  instruction   for   the    child    and  for    the 


I.  A 


Child, 
formative    stage,    in    which    the 


work  of  the  teacher  is  chiefly  one 
of  instruction,  1.  e.,  the  orderly 
and  systematic  imparting  of 
knowledge. 

The  teaching  should  be  direct, 
adapted  to  the  needs  and  interests 
of  the  child. 

Discipline  is  very  different;  kind 
but  firm,  insistent  and  uniform, 
habituating  to  right  action,  in 
part  natural  punishments,  duties 
made  plain  and  imperative,  obe- 
dience made  a  matter  of  course. 


Youth. 

The  stage  of  orientation,  in  which 
the  work  of  the  teacher  is  more 
one  of  guidance  or  assistance  in 
new  discoveries  and  investiga- 
tions. 

The  teaching  should  be  indirect  and 
suggestive,  adapted  to  the  needs 
and  interests  of  the  adolescent. 

Firm  and  just,  govern  by  reason  and 
indirection,  typical  cases  of  con- 
duct presented  as  examples  of 
right  action,  punishments  made 
more  a  matter  of  honor,  the 
method  more  rational,  advisory 
and  suggestive,  obedience  made 
the  most  reasonable  as  well  as  the 
most  desirable  course. 


Many  more  points  might  be  added  concerning  the  differ- 
ent methods  of  instruction  or  approach,  some  of  which  are 
even  more  marked  than  those  already  given.  But  enough 
have  been  presented  to  call  forth  the  question,  what  then 


233]         ELEMENTARY  AND  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  233 

should  be  the  difference  in  the  training  of  teachers  for  ele- 
mentary and  secondary  instruction?  Supplementary  to 
what  has  already  been  said  upon  this  point,  let  us  add  the 
following  regarding  the  preparation  of  elementary  and  sec- 
ondary teachers. 


Elementary  Teacher. 

1.  Less    extended     scholarship,    more 

practice,  readier  and  richer 
knowledge  of  the  common  school 
branches. 

2.  More    attention    given    to    general 

methods  of  teaching  the  elemen- 
tary subjects. 

3.  Methods  more  empiric,  concrete  and 

stable,  more  guidance  for  the 
teacher. 

4.  More  attention  given  to  details  and 

and  to  devices,  greater  skill  in  im- 
parting knowledge,  i.  e.,  the  period 
of  mechanics  and  memory,  the 
years  in  which  the  child  is  to  be- 
come familiar  with  the  tools 
(forms)  of  thought. 

5.  The  elementary  teacher  must  become 

familiar  with  the  physiology  and 
psychology  of  childhood. 


Secondary  Teacher. 

1.  Greater    scholarship,    less  practice, 

deeper  and  richer  knowledge  of  an 
allied  group  of  high  school  sub- 
jects. 

2.  More    attention    given    to    general 

principles  and  the  special  methods 
of  teaching  the  allied  high  school 
subjects. 

3.  Methods   more  scientific,  historical 

and  varying  (individualistic"), 
more  stress  placed  on  theory  and 
the  understanding. 

4.  More  attention  to  the  generalization 

and  classification  of  material, 
greater  skill  in  arousing  slumber- 
ing (budding)  humanity,  and  in- 
spiring students  toward  loftier 
ideals. 

5.  The  secondary  teacher  must  be  fa- 

miliar with  physiology  and 
psychology  of  adolescence. 


MEANING  OF 


Education  has  been  defined  as  the  process 
of    mental  development,  or  the  adjustment  of 

EDUCATION  ...  r  '  J 

the  individual  to  his  environment.  But  a  more 
complete  though  somewhat  awkward  definition  is  the  follow- 
ing :  Education  is  the  process  of  the  reconstruction  and 
utilization  of  experiences  by  means  of  which  the  individual 
is  brought  into  sympathetic  relation  with,  and  given  ever- 
increasing  control  of,  his  environment.  With  this  definition 
before  us,  teaching  becomes  the   intelligent  guidance  in  this 


2  34  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [234 

adaptation ;  teaching  then  is,  in  the  truest  as  well  as  the 
broadest  sense,  character  building.  To  be  efficient  and  vital 
the  teaching  must  be  adapted  at  all  points  to  the  interests, 
the  nature,  and  the  immediate  needs  of  the  child  who  is  to 
be  influenced  by  it.  The  pupil  must  feel  at  every  point  that 
what  he  is  doing  is  worth  while.  In  order  to  put  into 
operation  such  teaching,  it  is  necessary  to  make  a  specific 
difference  in  the  methods  of  the  preparation  of  elementary 
and  of  secondary  teachers. 

The   material   for   mental    development  nat- 
urally covers  two  fields :   the  great  commercial 

THOUGHT  •'  ° 

and  industrial  subjects — the  objective  or  scien- 
tific world ;  the  great  literary  and  culture  subjects — the  sub- 
jective or  humanistic  world.  The  one  administers  most  to 
man's  material  wants,  the  other,  to  his  spiritual. 

In  early  school  life  the  child  is  more  interested  in  the  ob- 
jective world — nature,  things,  and  natural  objects.  These 
furnish  the  key  by  means  of  which  he  becomes  familiar  with 
the  symbols  and  forms  (tools)  of  thought. 

In  secondary  education  he  is  better  prepared  for,  if  not 
more  interested  in,  the  humanistic  world — history,  language, 
literature,  and  begins  to  lay  the  foundation  for  broad  culture 
and  scientific  research. 

In  higher  education  he  naturally  limits  the  field  of  his 
activity,  selecting  one  or  more  subjects  from  either  the  sci- 
entific or  humanistic  field.  He  brings  to  bear  upon  them 
the  searchlight  of  his  experiences,  and  makes  them  the 
foundation  for  further  investigations  and  philosophic  thought, 
the  relating  and  unifying  of  all  experiences. 

The  mental  development   of   the   individual 

STAGES  OF      covers    three    important    periods:     the    early 

MENTAL  .  *■  .  ,   .      , 

DEVELOPMENT  ^ormativc    period,    extending    from    birth    to 

puberty;   the  period  of  orientation  or   mental 

adjustment,  extending   from   the   beginning  of   puberty  to 


235]         ELEMENTARY  AND  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  335 

probably   18;   the  period  of   manhood,   specialization,  and 
professional  life. 

The  first  period  is  covered  by  elementary,  foundation 
studies;  formative  disciplinary  work;  general  information 
concretely  represented.  The  second  is  covered  by  the  high 
school  studies;  less  of  form,  more  of  content;  a  period  of 
relating,  adjusting  and  classifying  knowledge ;  a  period  of 
orientation  and  transition  from  that  of  the  acquisition  of 
knowledge  through  instruction  to  that  of  the  acquisition  of 
knowledge  by  original  research  and  investigation.  The 
third  period  is  covered  by  the  last  years  of  the  college,  and 
the  special  professional  schools.  It  is  the  work  of  specializ- 
ing for  a  vocation. 

The     instructional     method,    which    is    best 

DIFFERENT     adapted  to  the  education  of  children,  and  the 

METHODS  OF  ..,..- 

INSTRUCTION  laboratory  method,  or  method  of  scientific  re- 
search, more  suitable  for  the  work  of  advanced 
students,  have  but  little  in  common.  They  represent  the 
two  extremes  in  the  methods  of  teaching.  The  high  school, 
representing  the  transition  period,  possesses  some  features 
belonging  to  each. 

In  the  elementary  school  all  subjects  yield  to  the  instruc- 
tional method,  i.  e.,  the  method  through  which  the  teacher 
brings  together,  in  an  orderly  and  systematic  arrangement, 
all  the  essential  material  on  the  subject  in  the  form  most 
easy  of  acquisition  by  the  learner.  In  the  high  school  some 
of  the  subjects  are  formative,  or  disciplinary,  and  require  the 
instructional  method,  while  other  subjects  are  more  a  matter 
of  content,  mental  adjustment,  individual  effort  and  dis- 
covery, and  yield  more  readily  to  the  laboratory  or  scientific 
method,  a  method  in  which  the  student  is  placed  under 
greater  responsibility  and  given  greater  freedom  for  inde- 
pendent action. 

The  secondary  teacher,  therefore,  must  be  a  master  of 


236        TRAINING  OF  SECOND  A  R  Y  TEA  CHERS  [236 

both  methods.  He  must  be  skilled  in  imparting  knowledge 
when  dealing  with  those  subjects,  or  parts  of  subjects,  in 
which  the  material  is  largely  a  fixed  quantity,  with  which  the 
student  must  become  familiar.  But  he  must  also  be  a  stu- 
dent, master  of  the  tools  and  the  method  of  research,  and 
capable  of  interesting  and  intelligently  guiding  his  students 
in  independent  action  and  original  investigations. 

Shall  there  be  separate  schools  for  elementary  and  second- 
ary teachers? 

Will  the  difference  in  the  method  of  preparation  of  ele- 
mentary and  secondary  teachers  require  that  the  professional 
training  be  given  in  separate  institutions? 

This  question  is  easier  to  propose  than  to  answer.  Under 
favorable  conditions,  such  as  exist  at  Teachers  College 
Columbia  University,  probably  all  the  training,  both  acad- 
emic and  professional,  can  be  given  to  best  advantage  in  one 
institution.  This  would  require  in  many  studies  separate 
classes,  but  not  separate  institutions. 

In  colleges  and  universities,  where  it  is  possible  to  have  a 
large  and  thoroughly  equipped  school  of  education,  there 
are  many  advantages  in  preparing  teachers  for  all  grades  of 
the  public  school  service.  It  is  certainly  much  more  eco- 
nomical than  to  have  the  work  of  the  different  grades  given 
in  different  institutions,  and  the  association  of  students  work- 
ing along  somewhat  different  lines  has  a  broadening  and 
beneficial  effect.  But  there  are  only  a  few  institutions  that 
have  met  the  above  requirements  regarding  a  school  of  edu- 
cation. Most  universities  have  only  a  department  of  educa- 
tion, limited  in  equipment  to  one  or  two  instructors.  In 
such  institutions  the  proper  preparation  of  teachers  for  all 
grades  is  impossible,  and  it  becomes  simply  a  question  as  to 
what  work  can  be  done  to  best  advantage.  This  question  has 
been  decided  in  several  universities  in  favor  of  the  training  of 
secondary  teaehers,  other  interests  remaining  subsidiary. 


2  3  7 1         ELEMENT AR  V  AND  SECONDAR  Y  TEA  CHERS  237 

Are  not  normal  schools  institutions  properly 
THE  MISSION     equipped  for  the  preparation  of  teachers  for  all 

OF  NORMAL  t  UV  U         1  1    :> 

SCHOOLS       grades  of  public  school  work? 

The  severest  criticism  that  has  been  raised 
against  normal  schools  has  been  along  the  line  of  the  shal- 
lowness, confidence,  self-assurance,  and  egotism  of  the  teach- 
ers they  send  forth.  This  criticism  has  weight  only  with 
such  institutions  as  endeavor,  with  meager  equipment,  to 
prepare  teachers  for  all  grades  of  public  education,  from  the 
kindergarten  to  the  university. 

In  the  judgment  of  the  writer  no  institutions  have  been, 
nor  are,  of  greater  service  to  the  public  welfare  than  the 
normal  schools  of  the  United  States.  They  have  been  an 
inspiration  to  the  teaching  profession  everywhere,  and  have 
created  a  public  demand  for  more  efficient  teachers.  Many 
an  educator  of  world-wide  fame  is  wont  to  attribute  the  in- 
spiration which  led  to  his  success  to  his  early  normal  school 
training.  Their  strong  points  far  outnumber  their  weak 
ones.  However,  as  now  constituted,  the  true  mission  of  the 
normal  school  begins  and  ends  with  the  training  of  element- 
ary teachers. 

Not  that  normal  school  professors  are  insufficiently  quali- 
fied to  give  the  training  most  appropriate  for  secondary 
teachers,  for  in  many  instances  the  normal  school  instructors 
have  had  equal  if  not  stronger  preparation  than  the  best  col- 
lege professors.  It  is  no  uncommon  occurrence  for  college 
professors  to  be  called  to  normal  school  chairs  and  vice 
versa.  But  the  normal  schools  under  their  present  equip- 
ment can  not  serve  both  fields  well,  and  it  is  simply  a  matter 
of  what  they  can  do  best.  This  question  has  been  decided 
for  them  a  priori,  partly  on  account  of  the  great  need  for 
efficient  elementary  teachers,  partly  on  account  of  environ- 
ment and  their  nearness  to  the  people,  and  partly  on 
account   of    the    age    and    academic    qualifications    of    the 


238  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [238 

majority  of  their  students,  which  unfit  them  for  entrance  upon 
the  professional  training  most  suitable  for  secondary  teachers. 

To  the  question,  "  Do  you  consider  it  a  part  of  the  work 
of  the  normal  school  to  prepare  teachers  for  secondary  edu- 
cation?" "ji  per  cent,  of  the  normal  school  principals 
answered  in  the  affirmative,  and  28  per  cent,  in  the  negative. 
This  shows  that  a  large  preponderance  of  the  normal  school 
principals,  in  the  108  state  normal  schools  reporting,  feel 
that  it  is  a  part  of  their  duty  to  make  provision  in  the  in- 
struction for  the  special  training  of  secondary  teachers. 

In  one-half  of  these  institutions  special  provisions  are 
made  for  college  and  university  graduates.  These  provi- 
sions consist  for  the  most  part  in  a  shortened  course,  usually 
one  year  in  length,  of  purely  professional  study  and  no 
academic  requirements.  The  college  graduates,  when  there 
are  any,  recite  in  their  professional  studies  along  with  the 
regular  normal  students.  The  reports  indicate  that  but  few 
college  graduates  take  advantage  of  these  courses.  Out  of 
25  institutions  reporting  in  1 899-1 900,  there  were  only  52 
college  graduates  in  attendance,  being  an  average  of  about 
two  for  each  school.  A  few  institutions  reported  as  many 
as  five  or  six,  but  many  more  reported  none.  One  writer 
says,  "Yes,  we  make  special  provision  for  college  graduates, 
but  to  no  purpose.  We  have  never  had  more  than  two  col- 
lege graduates  in  attendance  in  any  one  year,  and  more 
often  none." 

Another  principal  says,  "  We  have  a  course  designed 
especially  to  meet  the  wants  of  college  and  university  grad- 
uates. But  in  the  whole  history  of  this  school,  not  to  ex- 
ceed two  or  three  college  graduates  have  taken  advantage 
of  the  opportunity  afforded." 

The    following    counter    question    was    sub- 

MISSION  OF  . 

DEPARTMENTS   mittcd    to  profcssors    of   education   in   colleges 
OF  EDUCATION  and  universities:    "Do  you  consider  the  pro- 


239]         ELEMENT  A  RY  AND  SECONDAR  Y  TEA  CIIERS  239 

fessional  preparation  of  elementary  teachers  a  proper  func- 
tion of  departments  of  education  in  colleges  and  universities, 
or  can  that  training  be  given  to  better  advantage  in  normal 
schools  as  now  constituted?  " 

There  were  fifty-two  replies.  As  ^^:ill  be  seen,  the  ques- 
tion is  divided  into  two  parts.  In  answer  to  the  first  part, 
42  per  cent,  of  the  professors  of  education  were  of  the 
opinion  that  the  professional  preparation  of  teachers  for 
elementary  schools  is  a  proper  function  of  departments  of 
education  in  colleges  and  universities,  while  58  per  cent, 
hold  a  contrary  view.  In  regard  to  the  second  part  of  the 
question,  74  per  cent,  of  the  college  professors  believe  that 
the  professional  training  of  elementary  teachers  can  be  given 
to  better  advantage  in  normal  schools  as  now  constituted, 
while  26  per  cent,  are  of  the  opinion  that  such  training 
could  be  given  to  better  advantage  in  colleges  and  univer- 
sities. 

A  few  of  these  institutions,  as  Chicago  University  and 
Teachers  College  Columbia  University,  are  thoroughly 
equipped  and  well  adapted  for  the  training  of  teachers  for 
all  grades  of  public  school  work.  But  the  great  majority  of 
these  colleges  and  universities  are  as  limited  in  their  equip- 
ment for  the  training  of  teachers  on  the  one  hand  as  the 
state  normal  schools  are  on  the  other,  and  in  many  cases 
they  are  far  more  limited. 

Many  persons  are  of  the  opinion  that  the  elementary 
teacher  should  have  the  same  or  equivalent  academic  train- 
ing to  that  required  of  the  secondary  teacher;  hence  the 
importance  of  providing  for  their  complete  preparation  in 
colleges  and  universities.  It  is  thought  that  the  environ- 
ment of  the  university  would  be  more  broadening  and  ele- 
vating in  its  tone;  that  elementary  students  would  gain 
much  in  their  social  contact  with  more  advanced  students 
which  would  be  strengthening  to   them   in  their  teaching ; 


240  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [24O 

and  that  there  would  be  a  certain  unity  and  continuity  in  the 
work,  if  teachers  for  ail  grades  of  education  were  trained  in 
the  same  school,  that  would  be  both  helpful  and  economical. 

In  accord  with  the  last  thought  many  state  normal  school 
men  feel  that  such  a-n  institution  is  already  to  be  found  in 
the  state  normal  school;  an  institution  dedicated  to  the 
special  purpose  of  preparing  public  school  teachers.  They 
feel  that  the  professional  preparation  of  secondary  teachers 
would  be  taken  up  more  seriously,  and  given  more  efficiently 
if  ofifered  in  normal  schools  rather  than  in  colleges. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  are  many  normal  school  princi- 
pals and  college  professors  who  feel  that  as  a  practical  prob- 
lem the  work  should  be  divided,  the  normal  schools  giving 
special  attention  to  the  training  of  elementary  teachers,  and 
the  colleges  providing  for  the  training  of  secondary  teachers. 
During  the  school  year  of  1 899-1900  there 
were  over  fifteen  million  children  enrolled  in  the 

STATISTICS 

common  schools  of  the  United  States.  These 
were  taught  by  421,000  teachers.  In  the  same  year  there 
were  630,000  secondary  students,  519,000  of  whom  were  in 
the  public  high  schools.  These  secondary  students  were 
taught  by  30,000  secondary  teachers,  20,000  of  whom  were 
in  the  public  high  schools.  This  indicates  that  the  division 
between  elementary  and  secondary  teachers  in  the  United 
States  is  in  proportion  of  about  fifteen  elementary  teachers 
to  one  secondary  teacher. 

In  the  same  school  year  the  172  state  normal  schools 
graduated  9,000  students.  Judging  from  the  best  informa- 
tion obtainable,  these  probably  found  employment  in  the 
public  schools  in  the  proportion  of  ten  elementary  to  one 
secondary  teacher,  a  ratio  which  is  slightly  in  favor  of 
secondary  positions.  Or,  to  be  more  exact,  the  writer  ob- 
tained data  from  27  state  normal  schools,  showing  the  actual 
employment  of  1,560  of  their  graduates  for  the  year  1899. 


24l]         ELEMENTARY  AND  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  24I 

Of  these  normal  school  graduates  141,  or  about  9  per  cent., 
found  employment  as  teachers  in  the  secondary  schools ;  the 
rest  were  employed  as  elementary  teachers.  This  repre- 
sents a  proportion  of  about  eleven  to  one  in  favor  of  element- 
ary teachers,  which  is  probably  near  the  correct  ratio  for  the 
year  1899.  In  comparison  with  the  whole  number  of  teach- 
ers required  in  public  schools,  it  is  still  slightly  in  favor  of 
secondary  employment,  /'.  e.,  the  actual  need  for  elementary 
and  secondary  teachers  is  in  the  ratio  of  about  fifteen  to  one, 
while  normal  school  graduates  find  employment  as  element- 
ary and  secondary  teachers  in  about  the  ratio  of  ten  or  eleven 
to  one.  Some  schools  represent  a  much  larger  per  cent,  of 
graduates  who  find  positions  as  secondary  teachers,  while 
other  institutions  have  fewer  or  none  of  their  graduates  thus 
employed. 

In  a  large  majority  of  the  states,  public  normal  school 
students  receive,  on  graduation,  a  teacher's  certificate,  which 
entitles  the  holder  to  teach  in  any  of  the  public  elementary 
or  secondary  schools  of  the  state  without  further  examina- 
tion. This  probably  accounts,  in  part,  for  the  large  number 
of  normal  graduates  who  find  positions  as  secondary  teachers. 

It  would  be  interesting  if  we  had  the  data  for  comparison 
showing  the  school  positions  that  are  obtained  by  university 
graduates,  especially  by  such  graduates  as  have  made  special 
preparation  for  teaching.  Unfortunately,  such  information  is 
not  at  hand,  but  the  nearest  approach  to  it  is  the  result 
obtained  from  the  University  of  Nebraska.  Since  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  university  teacher's  certificate,  in  1897,  the 
proportion  has  been  in  the  ratio  of  about  eight  to  one  in  favor 
of  secondary  positions.  This  may  or  may  not  be  the  true 
relation.  However,  excluding  such  schools  as  Teachers 
College,  Columbia  University,  in  which  special  attention  is 
given  to  the  preparation  of  elementary  as  well  as  secondary 
teachers,  it  is  probably  not  far  from  the  true  relation. 


242  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [242 

In  other  words,  under  present  conditions,  the  public 
schools  of  the  country  are  in  need  of  fifteen  efficient  ele- 
mentary teachers  for  every  efficient  secondary  teacher. 
About  90  per  cent,  of  all  the  normal  school  graduates  find 
employment  in  the  elementary  schools,  while  probably 
between  80  and  90  per  cent,  of  the  university  graduates  who 
teach  find  places  in  the  secondary  schools,  or  in  supervision 
where  secondary  education  is  involved. 

Can  colleges  and  normal  schools  afTord  to  give  attention 
to  the  few  at  the  neglect  of  the  many  ? 

What  would  be  the  effect  if  normal  schools 

EFFECT  OF 

SEPARATE      gave  entire  attention  to  the  training  of  element- 

TRAiNiNG  ary  teachers,  while  colleges  and  universities 
SCHOOLS  devoted  special  attention  to  the  training  of 
secondary  teachers? 

Unfortunately,  this  question  was  found  to  be  somewhat 
ambiguouS;  and  consequently  did  not  bring  as  definite  re- 
turns as  the  writer  had  anticipated.  The  results,  however, 
are  more  or  less  interesting. 

In  reply  to  the  question,  44  per  cent,  of  the  normal 
school  principals  thought  that  the  effect  would  be  on  the 
whole  injurious;  33  per  cent,  thought  the  results  would  be 
beneficial ;  and  23  per  cent,  were  either  undecided  in  their 
opinions  or  thought  the  results  would  not  show  any  material 
difference. 

The  professors  of  education  in  colleges  and  universities 
were  almost  equally  at  variance  in  their  opinions  as  to  the 
effect  of  such  division  of  work.  55  per  cent,  of  the  college 
professors  thought  the  results  would  be  beneficial;  34  per 
cent,  thought  the  effect  would  be  injurious  or  detrimental; 
and  II  per  cent,  were  undecided  in  their  opinions.  Many 
are  of  the  opinion  that  while  it  would  be  beneficial  and 
advisable  for  normal  schools  to  devote  their  entire  attention 
to  the  preparation  of  elementary  teachers,  it  is,  nevertheless, 


243]         ELEMENTARY  AXD  SECOXDARY  TEACHERS  243 

quite  proper  and  essential  that  colleges  and  universities 
make  provision  for  the  suitable  training  of  teachers  for  all 
grades  of  public  education. 

The  writer  has  been  especially  interested  in  many  of  the 
thoughts  expressed  by  normal  school  principals  and  pro- 
fessors of  education,  some  of  which  are  given  below. 

"  Their  work   would   become  more   definite, 

VIEWS  OF  NOR-  „     .  ,  , 

MAL  SCHOOL    Dctter  understood,  and  more  efficient  through 

PRINCIPALS     a  greater  concentration  of  aim." 

FAVORING  (( j^  would  aud  does  increase  its  efficiency  by 

DIVISION         ...  ,  ,-    ,  ,  ,, 

focusing  Its  work  on  a  narrower  held. 

"  I  should  expect  for  the  normal  school  increased  effi- 
ciency and  a  larger  attendance." 

"  To  include  the  training  of  secondary  teachers,  we  should 
need  a  high  school,  according  to  our  plan,  containing  about 
ten  times  as  many  pupils  as  we  had  teachers  in  training. 
This  would  not  be  possible  for  us  now." 

"  I  believe  it  would  tend  to  strengthen  the  preparation  of 
elementary  teachers." 

"  One  must  be  made  the  important  feature  if  a  given 
school  would  succeed  financially." 

•*  The  schools  of  this  State  prepare  only  for  elementary 
instruction,  with  a  higher  grade  of  instruction  for  more  ad- 
vanced pupils.  Such  a  division  would  raise  the  tone  of  the 
work." 

"  It  would  be  more  economical.  It  would  simplify  and 
unify  the  aim,  and  solidify  the  work." 

"  I  think  if  the  state  normal  schools  as  they  are,  in  gen- 
eral, constituted,  would  devote  themselves  to  the  work  of 
preparing  teachers  for  the  elementary  schools;  give  all  their 
energies  in  this  direction;  use  all  their  money  to  this  end; 
and  that,  on  the  other  hand,  if  the  universities  would  estab- 
lish proper  higher  pedagogical  schools  for  the  preparation 
of  secondary  teachers,  that  the  normal  school  would  be  very 


244  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [244 

much  more  effective  in  its  work ;  and  the  pedagogical  col- 
lege in  the  university  would  enlarge  and  grow  and  become 
proficient  in  furnishing  properly  prepared  teachers  for 
secondary  schools.  Under  all  circumstances,  it  is  a  division 
of  labor  that  is  logical  and  bound  to  be  productive  of  good 
results." 

"The    tendency   would    be    to    lower    the 
scholarship  in  all  normal  schools.     People  are 
slow    to    understand    that    a    kindergartner    should     know 
geometry." 

"  It  would  be  fatal  to  the  New  York  State  schools." 

"  It  would  result,  under  the  present  educational  condi- 
tions, in  minimizing  the  dignity  of  the  work  of  elementary 
education  and  unduly  emphasize  the  difTerence  in  the  grades 
of  work." 

"  I  fear  the  instruction  in  normal  schools  would  become 
very  much  more  elementary." 

"  It  would  fill  the  normal  school  with  plodding  non-entities 
without  hope,  without  energy,  and  without  much  ability." 

"  It  would  make  the  normal  school  superficial  and  one- 
sided." 

'*  To  deny  the  normal  school  a  part  in  the  preparation  of 
high  school  teachers  would  inevitably  tend  to  lower  the 
standard  of  the  normal  school;  it  would  lose  in  dignity  and 
public  estimation.  The  presence  of  higher  and  broader 
courses  in  the  normal  school  tends  to  stimulate  and  help 
even  those  who  are  taking  the  shorter  courses ;  and  many 
of  those  who  are  preparing  for  elementary  instruction  will 
take  the  higher  courses  after  they  once  get  started." 

"  It  would  largely  destroy  their  ability  to  do  the  work. 
This  for  several  reasons,  one  of  which  is  that  the  higher 
makes  both  possible  and  efficient  the  lower." 

"  In  case  the  preparation  for  teachers  for  secondary  edu- 
cation is  not  accompHshed  in  normal  schools,  either  state 


245]  ELEMENTARY  AND  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  245 

normal  schools  or  university  professional  schools,  the  present 
unsatisfactory  condition  of  secondary  teachers,  prepared 
only  in  a  scholastic  sense,  will  continue  to  exist.  If  it  is 
assumed,  on  the  other  hand,  that  the  state  normal  schools 
shall  prepare  teachers  only  for  the  elementary  schools  and 
not  undertake  to  impart  methods  adapted  to  secondary 
education,  while  university  professional  departments  attempt 
to  impart  professional  instruction  and  methods  adapted  only 
to  teachers  in  secondary  schools,  we  shall  then  have  the 
anomalous  condition  now  existing,  which,  to  my  mind,  is 
extremely  unsatisfactory." 

"  The  state  normal  schools,  under  their  charters  and  pro- 
visions, especially  in  this  part  of  the  country  (Iowa),  will  be 
granted  almost  the  entire  control  of  the  preparation  of 
teachers.  Since  they  are  offering  pedagogical  courses  for 
college  graduates,  they  will  likewise  do  a  large  amount  of 
work,  before  very  long,  in  preparing  high  school  teachers," 
"  It  would  not  affect  the  normal  school 
CHANGE  NOT     fjiaterially,    as    such    a    condition    practically 

MATERIAL  .  "^  '^  "^ 

exists  now," 

"I  should  not  regard  such  a  division  as  necessarily  detri- 
mental to  the  success  of  the  school  attempting  it," 

"  I  cannot  see  any  material  change.  Proper  normal  train- 
ing fits  for  any  kind  of  teaching,  whether  in  the  kindergarten 
or  the  university," 

"The  difTerence  would  not  be  marked.  However,  with 
the  present  low  wages  and  brief  tenure,  elementary  teachers 
cannot  afford  to  fit  themselves  also  for  secondary  work. 
There  should  be,  for  a  few  years  at  least,  many  normal 
schools  for  the  distinct  purpose  of  training  elementary 
teachers  alone." 

"I  believe  the  results  would  be  beneficial,  as 

QUOTATIONS  ' 

FROM  PRO-  it  would  give  a  greater  concentration  of  aim, 
FEssoRs  OF  put  more  meaning  and  definiteness  in  the  in- 
EDUCATION     struction." 


246  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [246 

"I  believe  it  would  increase  the  efficiency  of  the  candi- 
dates for  both  elementary  and  secondary  schools." 

"If  colleges  undertook  the  work  of  preparing  teachers  for 
elementary  schools,  it  would  detract  from  their  success  in 
training  secondary  teachers.  Such  a  division  of  work  would 
be  highly  commendable." 

"  It  is  desirable  that  secondary  teachers  have  a  thorough 
acquaintance  with  the  elementary  schools,  but  the  work 
should  be  done  in  separate  classes  or  institutions.  There  is 
a  dififerent  point  of  view." 

"  The  main  things  of  course,  is  for  colleges  to  train 
secondary  teachers.  The  normal  schools  are  best  equipped 
for  the  preparation  of  elementary  teachers." 

"  It  would  dignify  the  whole  business,  and  be  advan- 
tageous all  around," 

"  If  colleges  were  to  give  as  much  attention  to  the  prep- 
aration of  elementary  teachers  as  to  the  preparation  of 
teachers  for  secondary  schools,  the  effect,  as  a  rule,  would 
be  to  lower  the  grade  of  work  in  case  of  secondary  teachers. 
Normal  schools  are  better  fitted  to  prepare  elementary 
teachers." 

"Secondary  education  would  be  much  more  intelligible 
to  a  student  if  he  could  take  a  general  view,  at  least,  of  the 
work  from  the  bottom  up.  It  does  not  seem  to  me  neces- 
sary, however,  to  enter  in  any  detail  into  the  training  of 
teachers  for  elementary  schools  in  order  to  do  efficient  work 
in  the  training  of  teachers  for  secondary  schools." 

"  Should  colleges  give  attention  to  the  prep- 
aration of  teachers  for    elementary  schools,  it 

VIEWS  •' 

would  necessitate  on  their  part  a  study  of  the 
problems  of  education  from   a  dififerent  point  of  view.     It 
would  reveal  to  them  the  difference  which  now  exists  be 
tween  the  method  and  practice  of  teaching  in  elementary 
schools  and  the  method  and  practice  of  teaching  in  sec- 


247 j  ELEMENTARY  AND  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  247 

ondary  schools.  They  would  at  length  perceive  the  abrupt 
change  in  method,  and  they  might  gradually,  with  great  ad- 
vantage to  the  elementary  school  and  the  secondary  school, 
make  the  transition  in  method  almost  imperceptible." 

"  It  is  certainly  advisable  for  normal  schools  to  limit  their 
instruction  to  the  preparation  of  elementary  teachers,  but  it 
is  not  necessary  nor  advisable  to  limit  colleges  in  their  train- 
ing to  the  preparation  of  secondary  teachers." 

"  The  effect,  in  part  at  least,  would  be  good.  The 
academic  conditions  of  normal  schools  no  longer  prepare 
their  students  for  secondary  teachers,  while  colleges  with 
their  preparatory  departments  are  most  favorably  situated 
to  prepare  teachers  for  all  grades." 

"We  have  found  by  experience  that  it  is  helpful  to  all,  to 
interest  them  in  the  work  of  the  grades,  and  especially  to 
teach  in  the  grades.  We  believe  that  all  teachers  for 
secondary  schools  should  know  the  work  below." 

"  I  believe  the  plan  is  fraught  with  danger  both  for  the  col- 
lege and  the  normal  school.  To  narrow  the  field  would  lower 
the  dignity  of  the  work  and  diminish  the  size  of  the  classes." 

"  It  would  probably  have  a  bad  effect  by  emphasizing  the 
difference  between  elementary  and  secondary  teachers,  and 
weaken  the  work  in  both  fields." 

"  I  see  no  reason  to  believe  that  any  peculiar  effect,  harm- 
ful or  otherwise,  would  appear  provided  the  quality  of  the 
instruction  addressed  to  the  students  is  what  it  ought  to  be." 

"  The  college  properly  equipped  ought  to  do  both.  I  do 
not  see  any  reason  why  there  should  be  any  detriment  be- 
cause the  college  assumes  the  duty  of  the  professional  train- 
ing of  elementary  teachers." 

The  question  of  the  advisability  of  separate 

THE  TRUTH     training  schools  for  elementary  and  secondary 

DIFFICULT  •    Ti  1  1  1  1 

TO  FIND       teachers,  or  more  especially  the  thought  that 
would  limit  the  normal  schools  or  colleges  to  a 


248  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [248 

narrower  field  in  the  training  of  teachers  than  is  now  the 
usual  practice,  is  one  that  is  surrounded  with  much  sentiment 
and  tradition  which  are  apt  to  arouse  in  its  discussion  consid- 
erable feeling  and  partisan  spirit.  It  is  often  difficult  to  give 
fair  consideration  to  a  question  that  seems  to  offer  in  its  solu- 
tion the  curtailment  of  the  individual's  power  and  influence. 

The  commonly  expressed  thought  that  any  one  can  teach 
children,  and  its  equally  absurd  counterpart,  that  any  col- 
lege graduate  can  teach  English,  are  still  to  be  found  in  but 
slightly  modified  form  in  our  best  institutions  of  learning. 
And  kindred  to  these  is  the  thought  quoted  above  from  a 
normal  school  principal  who  says,  "  Proper  normal  training 
fits  for  any  kind  of  teaching,  whether  in  the  kindergarten  or 
in  the  university."  Such  men  are  doubtless  honest  in  their 
opinions,  but  they  certainly  fail  to  comprehend  the  true 
situation.  A  study  of  the  quotations  given  above  will  con- 
vince the  reader  that  somebody  must  be  wrong. 

Most  students  of  education  are  aware  that  there  are  great 
dififerences  in  individual  minds,  especially  between  the  atti- 
tude of  the  child  and  of  the  youth,  which  must  be  met  by 
dififerences  in  the  method  of  instruction.  City  superintend- 
ents are  likewise  aware  that  some  teachers  are  best  adapted 
for  primary  work,  others  for  intermediate  grades,  and  still 
others  for  the  high  schools.  In  imparting  information,  every 
true  method  must  be  adapted  to  the  nature  and  intelligence 
of  the  individual  instructed.  That  there  should  be  a  differ- 
ence in  the  requirements  for  elementary  and  secondary 
teachers  is  quite  apparent.  But  in  what  way  can  we  give 
the  most  effective  training  to  each  with  the  appliances  at 
our  command,  is  the  question  under  consideration. 

Many  persons  are  of  the   opinion  that  ele- 

coLLEGEs  vs.    rn^ntarv  teachers  should  have  a  college  educa- 
NORMAL  .  '  .... 

SCHOOLS       *'°"'  ^""  hence,  that  colleges  and  universities 

must  be  better  fitted  for  the  training  of  teachers 


249]         ELEMENTARY  AND  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  249 

for  all  grades  of  public  education,  even  including  the  ele- 
mentary, than  are  the  normal  schools.  This  opinion  is 
shared  less  by  professors  of  education  who  have  given  the 
subject  serious  thought  than  by  others.  But  since  it  is  the 
honest  opinion  of  a  number  of  intelligent  people  it  deserves 
consideration. 

The  statistics  of  state  normal  schools  show  that  they  are 
still  on  the  increase  at  a  fairly  rapid  rate.  During  the  past 
decade  there  have  been  37  new  state  normal  schools  estab- 
lished, an  average  of  about  four  per  year.  In  the  year  1900 
there  were  in  the  United  States  172  state  normal  schools, 
with  a  property  valuation,  including  grounds  and  buildings, 
of  about  thirty  million  dollars.  The  annual  appropriation 
for  that  year  for  buildings  and  support  is  given  at  three  mil- 
lion five  hundred  thousand  dollars.  Such  an  accumulation 
of  property  and  of  interest  is  not  the  result  of  a  day. 
Neither  could  the  services  of  these  schools  be  set  aside 
without  seriously  crippling  the  whole  educational  system. 

It  would  require  years  for  the  colleges  and  universities  to 
become  as  well  fitted  for  the  training  of  elementary  teachers 
as  the  state  normal  schools  now  are,  and  all  to  what  pur- 
pose?— simply  to  do  the  normal  work  over  again.  The  nor- 
mal schools  might  be  converted  into  colleges  and  the  col- 
leges into  normal  schools,  but  what  would  be  gained  by  the 
change? 

Normal  schools  are  admirably  fitted  by  nature,  environ- 
ment, equipment,  and  teaching  force,  for  the  professional 
training  of  elementary  teachers.  In  order  to  enable  colleges 
and  universities  to  perform  the  work  of  the  training  of 
elementary  teachers  as  successfully,  it  would  be  necessary  to 
establish  in  connection  with  each  institution  a  separate  nor- 
mal school,  with  ample  provision  for  the  study  of  the 
elementary  subjects  and  for  practice-teaching,  and  also  with 
a  teaching  staff  large  enough  to  put  the  work  in  operation. 


250  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [25O 

The  establishment  of  such  normal  departments  or  schools 
would  be,  under  many  circumstances,  a  most  fortunate 
thing  to  do.  However,  it  would  simply  mean  the  creation 
of  a  new  normal  school  under  the  favorable  environment  of 
a  good  university. 

It  is  a  matter  of  economy,  of  practical  utility,  and  of  good 
sense  that  state  normal  schools  should  be  given  chief  re- 
sponsibility in  the  training  of  elementary  teachers.  It  is  the 
problem  for  which  they  were  created,  and  for  which  they 
are  so  admirably  fitted.  The  field  is  large  enough  and  im- 
portant enough  to  occupy  the  best  talent  that  is  to  be  found 
in  the  entire  country.  There  is  need  for  many  more  such 
schools,  and  the  demand  for  well  trained  teachers  is  sure  to 
increase  with  the  supply. 

But  notwithstanding  the  fitness  of  the  normal  school  for 
the  training  of  elementary  teachers,  it  is  not  adapted  to  the 
training  of  secondary  teachers.  To  continue  to  fool  the 
public  in  a  make-believe  poHcy  is  wrong.  To  properly  train 
secondary  teachers,  the  normal  school  must  become  in  truth 
a  college  and  modify  its  methods  to  meet  the  needs  of  high 
school  teachers.  To  do  this  would  destroy  its  usefulness  for 
the  training  of  elementary  teachers,  or  necessitate  the  com- 
bining of  two  separate  training  schools  into  one  institution. 

It  is  thought  by  many  that  to  limit  the  normal  schools  to 
the  training  of  elementary  teachers,  would  fill  these  schools 
"  with  plodding  nonentities,  without  hope  and  without 
energy."  That  it  would  make  them  "  superficial  and  one- 
sided," destroy  their  "  dignity  and  weaken  the  instruction." 
It  does  not  seem,  however,  that  these  inferences  are  cor- 
rectly drawn.  Take,  for  instance,  the  kindergarten  training 
schools:  has  it  destroyed  their  dignity  or  weakened  their 
influence  because  they  have  limited  their  instruction  to  a 
narrow  but  important  field?  Look  at  the  names  that  do  us 
honor:    Emma    Marwedel,    Kate    Douglas    Wiggin-Riggs, 


251]  FLl'.MEh  TAR  Y  AND  SECOND AR  V  TEA CIIERS  2 5  I 

Maria  Kraus-Boehe,  Eudora  L.  Hailmann,  Elizabeth  Har- 
rison, Jenny  B.  Merrill,  Sara  E.  Wiltse,  Lucy  VVheelock, 
Susan  Blow,  Amalie  Hofer,  Mary  D.  Runyan ;  and  we  might 
add  twenty  more  without  reducing  the  quality. 

Who  will  say  that  such  a  list  of  educators  is  not  sufficient 
refutation  to  the  argument  that  to  narrow  and  intensify  the 
field — providing  it  still  remains  large  enough  and  important 
enough  to  be  worth  while — weakens  the  output? 

The  elementary  schools  cover  a  much  larger  and  more 
important  field  than  the  kindergarten,  but,  with  the  possible 
exception  of  primary  education  wherein  the  overflow  from 
the  kindergarten  has  influenced  the  teaching,  where  in  the 
whole  field  of  elementary  education  can  we  find  such  an 
arra)'  of  educational  leaders?  It  is  a  great  honor  to  be  a 
good  kindergartner,  but  it  is  an  equal  honor  to  be  a  good 
elementary  teacher,  and  there  is  more  need  for  the  latter. 

A  good  kindergarten  training  school  may  be  connected 
with  a  normal  school,  a  college,  or  a  university,  and  in  the 
judgment  of  the  writer  it  is  fortunate  for  the  training  school 
to  be  so  situated,  but  in  every  case  it  remains  a  kindergarten 
still.  Its  students  may  all  be  college  graduates,  and  pre- 
ferably so,  but  while  in  special  preparation  for  their  future 
vocation,  they  have  but  little  in  common  with  prospective 
teachers  of  other  departments.  They  may  study  many  of 
their  academic  and  a  few  of  their  professional  subjects  in 
common,  but  the  rest  of  their  studies  will  lead  them  into 
entirely  different  lines.  The  same  condition  is  equally  true 
of  elementary  and  of  secondary  teachers ;  a  part  of  their 
studies  they  can  mutually  share  with  profit,  but  the  rest  of 
the  way  they  must  go  in  separate  paths. 

In    the   judgment    of    the    writer   we    have 


THE  NEED  FOR 


reached  a   stage    m   the  educational   develop- 

TRAINED  .  ,   .    ,       .       ,  , 

TEACHERS      mcut  of  this  country  m  which  it  has  become 
almost  imperative    for    us    to    demand   higher 


252  TRAINING  OF  SE CONDAR  Y  TEA  CHERS  [252 

qualifications,  and  more  definite  and  more  truly  professional 
training  on  the  part  of  our  teachers.  To  overlook  this 
need,  or  to  fail  to  properly  provide  for  it,  means  a  loss  to 
the  people,  and  to  the  republic,  which  can  never  be  re- 
gained. 

At  the  last  meeting  (1902)  of  the  National  Education 
Association  of  the  United  States — an  organization  that  has 
been  of  incalculable  value  to  the  teachers'  profession — the 
following  statements  were  adopted  as  a  part  of  that  organi- 
zation's "  Declaration  of  Principles  :  " 

"  We  heartily  commend  every  step  which  may  be  taken 
for  increasing  the  necessary  qualifications  of  teachers,  and 
hope  soon  to  see  as  definite  a  standard  for  the  training  of 
teachers  as  is  now  fixed  by  the  best  schools  in  the  country 
for  the  training  of  physicians  or  lawyers.  We  believe  that 
the  fixing  of  such  a  standard  and  a  strict  adherence  to  it 
would  elevate  the  work  of  the  teacher  to  that  of  a  profession. 
We  further  commend  any  movement  that  may  be  in- 
augurated for  securing  uniformity  of  requirements  in  the 
training  and  the  licensing  of  teachers  in  the  various  states 
and  territories,  and  which  would  bring  about  a  just  recogni- 
tion by  these  states  and  territories  of  the  diplomas  or  certifi- 
cates granted  under  this  system.  The  crossing  of  the 
boundary  line  of  any  state  should  no  longer  be  assumed  to 
nullify  the  qualifications  of  the  skilled  teacher  and  the 
expert  supervisor,  or  the  scholastic  fitness  of  men  and 
women  whose  energies  are  devoted  to  the  cause  of  educa- 
tion." 

Probably  no  other  nation  is  so  dependent  upon  the  in- 
telligence and  character  of  the  whole  people  as  the  United 
States.  This  fact  has  been  brought  into  greater  prominence 
since  the  active  cooperation  of  this  country  in  the  family  of 
nations.  Culture,  virtue,  and  true  diplomacy  should  be  the 
prevailing  characteristics.  And  for  all  these  we  must  turn 
to  our  schools  and  their  teachers. 


253]         ELEMENTAR  Y  AND  SE  CONDAR  Y  TEA  CHERS  253 

Owing  to  various  circumstances  the  great  majority  of  the 
people  spend  but  few  years  in  the  public  schools.  These 
years  should  be  prolonged  if  possible,  but  in  any  event  they 
should  be  made  the  most  profitable  years  of  the  individual's 
entire  life.  Through  efificient  teaching  they  should  lay  the 
foundation  for  true  character,  for  intelligence,  virtue,  and 
Christian  integrity  that  would  give  success  and  stability  to 
the  individual,  and  happiness  and  encouragement  to  others. 
But  in  the  majority  of  cases  these  important  years  are  spent 
under  the  influence  of  a  teacher,  probably  not  yet  out  of  her 
teens,  who  has  had  absolutely  no  special  preparation  for 
teaching.  She  lacks  in  maturity,  in  scholarship,  in  judg- 
ment, in  ideals,  in  character,  and  in  a  knowledge  of  human 
nature;  but,  since  she  is  legion,  she  has  within  her  power 
and  moulding  the  destiny  of  the  nation. 

The  writer  is  not  in  favor  of  the  German  plan 

THE  WAY  OUT  ,   .  „,  ,  .        . 

for  this  country.  We  are  too  democratic  in 
spirit  to  make  such  a  plan  feasible.  To  make  the  boundary 
line  between  the  work  of  the  elementary  teacher,  on  the  one 
hand,  and  the  secondary  teacher,  on  the  other,  more  diffi- 
cult of  passage,  would  be  injurious  in  its  effect.  The 
teacher  should  always  feel  free,  and  with  slight  additional 
preparation  be  able  to  change  from  one  field  of  teaching  to 
the  other.  If  the  elementary  teacher  feels  that  with  some 
additional  study,  she  can  change  at  will  to  the  kindergarten 
field,  on  the  one  hand,  or  to  the  secondary  field,  on  the 
other,  she  is  happier,  more  contented,  and  more  efificient  in 
her  work.  Nothing  is  apt  to  disturb  the  average  individual's 
equilibrium  more  than  to  feel  that  he  is  doomed  to  remain 
in  one  position.  We  do  not  wish  to  change  half  as  much 
when  we  know  we  can. 

We  have  reached  a  point  in  our  educational 
REASONABLE     pj-Qgress — at  least  in  many  states — wherein  the 

STANDARDS        ^        ^ 

minimum  standard  for  the  preparation  of  ele- 


254        TRAIXLXG  OF  SECOSDARY  TEACHERS  [254 

mentary  teachers  can  be,  and  ought  to  be,  the  equivalent  of 
a  four  years'  high  school  course,  and  at  least  tv\o  years  of 
additional  training  at  some  good  state  normal  school.  The 
minimum  requirement  for  secondary  teachers  should  be,  in 
addition  to  the  above  high  school  course,  a  four  years'  col- 
lege course,  supplemented  by  the  professional  requirements 
as  outlined  in  the  preceding  chapter:  the  latter  to  be  in- 
sisted upon  as  earnestly  as  the  normal  school  training  is  in 
the  former  case. 

These  standards  are  attainable,  thoroughly  practical,  and 
in  some  states  already  in  operation.  When  put  in  operation 
they  will  elevate  the  teacher's  profession ;  lengthen  and  in- 
crease the  school  attendance ;  be  far  more  economical  to 
the  taxpayer,  while  at  the  same  time  increasing  the  teacher's 
salary ;  and  will  more  than  treble  the  efficiency  of  the  teach- 
ing. The  educators  of  the  country  should  unite  in  bringing 
about  these  conditions.  State  superintendents  and  state 
boards  of  education  should  be  urged  to  take  the  required 
action,  state  legislatures  should  be  appealed  to,  and  all  along 
the  line  there  should  be  concerted  action  in  arousing  public 
sentiment  to  demand  of  teachers  the  qualifications  herein 
set  forth. 

The  certificating  or  licensing  of  teachers  for 

CERTIFICATING  ill  l  IIJU  j/  ^i 

any  and  all  grades  should  be  removed  from  the 

OF  TEACHERS  •'  ... 

hands  of  separate  institutions  and  local  authori- 
ties, and  should  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  a  non-partisan  state 
board  of  education.  The  members  of  this  board  should  be 
chosen  on  account  of  their  interest  and  scholarly  fitness  for 
the  duties  which  devolve  upon  them.  All  certificating  of 
teachers  should  be  in  the  hands  of  this  central  board.  There 
should  be  no  blanket  certificates  issued.  On  the  contrary, 
every  certificate  should  be  made  to  cover  only  such  sub- 
jects or  such  parts  of  the  field  of  education  as  the  candidate 
is  especially  fitted  to  teach.     This  would  give  meaning  and 


255]         ELEMENTAR  Y  AND  SE COXDAR  Y  TEA  CHERS  255 

value   to  teachers'   certificates,  that    would    go  a  long  way 
toward  securing  their  universal  recognition. 

All  institutions  of  the  state  properly  fitted  to  prepare 
teachers  for  the  elementary  or  secondary  schools  should  be 
subject  in  that  part  of  their  work  to  the  inspection  and 
direction  of  the  state  board  of  education.  The  recom- 
mendations for  teachers'  certificates  for  the  specially  quali- 
fied graduates  of  these  schools  might  come  from  the  proper 
authorities  of  the  institutions  concerned,  but  the  granting 
power  as  well  as  the  certificate  itself  should  remain  in  the 
hands  of  the  state  board.  There  should  be  a  strong  effort 
among  all  state  boards  of  education,  where,  as  in  New  York 
state,  such  a  law  of  uniform  licensing  is  put  in  operation,  to 
have  these  states  add  a  reciprocity  clause,  by  means  of 
which  teachers*  certificates  of  the  different  states  might  find 
mutual  recognition.  To  this  end  all  teachers  should  labor 
and  strive.  It  is  worth  a  struggle  to  elevate  one's  profes- 
sion, and  to  receive  in  the  end  the  universal  appreciation  of 
his  fellow-countrymen. 

If  we  are  right  in  our  conclusions,  the  stu- 

CONCLUSION       ,  ,.,,.,  ,  ,  ,         , 

dent  who   is  lookmg  forward  to  the  teachers 

profession  should  begin  her  preparation  by  completing  a 
good  high  school  course.  This  will  fit  her  for  entrance 
upon  college  or  university  study  on  the  one  hand,  or  upon 
professional  study  at  a  first-class  normal  school  on  the  other. 
In  the  first  instance  she  will  need  at  least  four  years  to  com- 
plete the  course  provided  for  her,  and  in  the  second  case, 
two.  When  she  has  completed  her  high  school  course  she 
comes  to  the  parting  of  the  way  and  must  decide  upon 
which  road  to  enter.  If  she  desires  to  become  a  teacher  in 
the  elementary  schools,  or  if  she  can  spend  but  two  years  in 
further  preparation,  the  state  normal  school  will  probably 
be  best  adapted  to  her  needs.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  she 
desires  to  become  a  high  school  teacher,  and  has  four  years 


256  TRAINING  OF  SECONDARY  TEACHERS  [256 

to  devote  to  the  preparation,  it  is  best  for  her  to  enter  at 
once  upon  college  or  university  training.  She  will  profit 
greatly  by  selecting  a  school  that  has  a  good  department  of 
education.  She  should  not  allow  the  temptations  of  early 
employment  to  prevent  her  from  completing  one  of  the  above 
courses.  It  will  pay  many  times  over  in  a  richer,  happier, 
and  more  prosperous  life,  even  though  she  is  destined  to  re- 
main but  a  few  years  in  the  teachers'  profession.' 

When  normal  schools  can  adapt  their  instruction  to  the 
needs  of  high  school  graduates,  the  work  will  become  much 
more  specific  and  valuable.  The  two  years'  normal  course 
can  then  be  made  to  cover  at  least  the  freshman  year  at 
college,  besides  a  review  of  the  essential  features  of  the 
common  school  branches  coupled  with  the  proper  profes- 
sional training;  the  latter  to  be  scattered  over  the  entire 
two  years'  work.  Should  the  teacher  thus  trained  desire 
later  to  become  a  secondary  teacher,  the  way  is  open.  With 
three  years  of  additional  study  she  can  complete  a  university 
course,  including  the  special  requirements  for  a  secondary 
teachers'  certificate.  She  has  lost  one  year  in  time  by  the 
normal  school  route,  but  she  ought  to  be  a  year  stronger  on 
this  account  for  even  high  school  teaching. 

There  is  one  fact  that  cannot  be  overlooked :  under 
present  conditions  university  graduates  are  not  contented 
and  will  not  remain  in  district  or  grade  positions,  except 
under  the  most  favorable  circumstances  of  city  life.  As  a 
rule,  they  have  been  separated  in  thought  for  at  least  eight 
years  from  the  elementary  subjects  which  they  are  expected 
to  teach ;   four  years  in   the  high  school,  and  four  years  in 

1  What  has  been  said  regarding  the  preparation  of  women  teachers  applies 
equally  well  to  the  preparation  of  men.  We  have  used  the  pronoun  she  simply 
because  it  has  come  to  represent  the  larger  number.  There  are  many  vital  reasons 
vrhy  there  should  be  more  male  teachers  in  the  elementary  schools,  especially  ia 
the  6th,  7th  and  8th  grades,  and  as  principals. 


2  5  7 1         ELEMENTAR  Y  AND  SECOND AR  Y  TEA CHERS  257 

college.  Their  natural  environment,  education,  and  associa- 
tions have,  except  in  a  few  cases,  put  them  out  of  touch  and 
sympathy  with  children.  But  there  should  be  some  feasible 
plan  inaugurated  by  means  of  which  the  children  in  the 
elementary  schools,  who  represent  at  least  95  per  cent,  of 
the  whole,  shall  be  given  efficient  instruction.  Under 
proper  conditions  of  preparation  and  of  salary  many  persons 
would  be  just  as  contented,  if  not  more  so,  to  spend  their 
lives  with  children  as  with  youth. 

When  state  normal  schools  and  departments  of  education 
in  colleges  and  universities  properly  adjust  their  instruction 
after  some  such  plan  as  has  been  herein  outlined,  there  will 
result  great  economy  of  effort,  of  money,  and  of  time ;  and 
the  training  will  be  more  efficient,  and  more  appreciated 
both  by  students  and  the  general  public.  Even  under  these 
conditions,  there  will  be  found  in  the  normal  school  classes 
students  who  are  best  adapted  for  high  school  teachers,  and 
who  will  naturally  find  such  positions.  Likewise  in  the 
university  that  has  no  normal  department,  there  will  be 
found  students  especially  fitted  by  nature  for  primary  or 
grade  teachers.  These,  also,  should  be  encouraged  to  enter 
the  field  for  which  they  are  best  adapted.  But  under  the 
plan  suggested  these  students  would  be  the  exception,  not 
the  rule.  This,  in  the  judgment  of  the  writer,  is  the  solution 
of  the  problem. 


SIBl^lOGRAPHY 


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260  BfBUOGRAPffy  [260 

Hill,  Dr.  Thomas.    The  Study  of  Didactics  in  Colleges.     Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  15  : 

179  (1864). 
Hill,  Frank  A.     State  Examination  and  Certification  of  Teachers,  pp.  22.  Boston, 

1895. 
Hinsdale,  B.  A.     Pedagogical  Chairs  in  Colleges  and  Universities.     Proc.  N.  E.  A. 

1889.     Also,  in  Studies  in  Education,  pp.  166-281.     Werner   School  Book 

Co.  (1896). 
Hinsdale,  B.  A.     The  Training  of  Teachers.     Monographs  on  Education  in  the 

United  States.     Edited  by  N.  M.  Butler,  i :  259.     J.  B.  Lyons  &  Co.,  Albany, 

N.  Y.,  2  vols.  1900. 
Hinsdale,  B.  A.     Study  of  Education  in  Colleges  and  Universities.     Educa.  Rev., 

19:  105  (Feb.,  1900). 
Hollis,  A.  P.     The  Present  Status  of  Practice  Teaching  in  State  Normal  Schools. 

Ped.  Sem.,  8:  495-509  (1901). 
Holt,  Rosa  Belle.     The  Teachers'  College,  Cosmop.,  16:  579  (Mar..  1894). 
Jacobs,  W.  B.     Training  of  Teachers  for  Secondary  Schools.     Educa.  Rev.,  1 1 : 

245   (Mar.,  1896). 
James,  Edmund  J.  Chairs  of  Pedagogics  in  Our  Universities,  pp.  46.    Philadelphia, 

1887. 
Laurie,  S.  S.     Training  of  Teachers  and  Methods  of  Instruction,  pp.  304. 
Mayo,  Rev.  A.  D.     Assault  on  the  Normal  Schools.     (In  American  Institute  of 

Instruction,  pp.  39-43,  1877). 
Newell,  M.  A.     Contributions  to  the  History  of  Normal  Schools  in  the  U.  S.     Re- 
port of  Comm'r  of  Educa.,  1898-99,  2:  2263-2470. 
Nightingale,  A.  F.    Preparation  of  Teachers  for  Secondary  Schools.   School  Rev,, 

4:  149  (1896). 
North,  Ed.      Normal  Instruction  in  Colleges.      Univ.  of  New  York,   Regents' 

Reports,  pp.  701.  1869. 
O'Shea,  M.  V.      Professional   Training   of  Teachers.     Pop.  Sci.   Mo.,   45  :  726 

(Oct.,  1894). 
O'Shea,  M.  V.     Function  of  the  University  in  the  Training  of  Secondary  Teachers. 

School  Rev.,  8:  157-70  (1900). 
Payne,  W.  H.    "  Teaching  as  a  Trade  and  as  a  Profession,"  and  "  Education  as  t 

University  Study."     In  Contributions  to  the  Science  of  Education.     Harper 

Brothers,  1886. 
Payne,  W.  II.     Training  of  the  Teacher.     Educa.  Rev.,  16 :  469  (1898). 
Payne,  W.  H.     Aspects  of  Professional  Teaching.     Educa.,  3  :  327  (1883). 
Payne,  W.  H.     The  Education  of  Teachers,  pp.  272.     B.  F.  Johnson,  Richmond, 

Va.  1901. 
Pierce,  E.  T.     The  Normal  School  as  a  Source  of  Teaching  Force.     Overland,  N. 

S.,  28;  219  (Aug.,  1896). 
Pierce,  E.  T.     Professional  Education  of  Teachers.     Annals  of  Education,  4  :  49 

(1884),  Boston. 
Putnam,  Daniel.     A  History  of  the  State  Normal  School  at'  Ypsilanti   Michigan, 

from  1849-1899.     Ypsilanti,  Mich.  1899. 


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Ross,  G.  W.    Training  of  Teachers  in  Ontario,  Canada.     School  Rev.,   i :  400 

(1893). 

Rounds,  lola.     Training  of  Teachers.     Educa.,  5  :  581  (1885). 

Russell,  James  E.  The  Training  of  Teachers  for  Secondary  Schools.  Educa.  Rer., 
p.  364  (Apr.,  1892).  Also  Proc.  of  N.  E.  A.,  p.  285  (1899).  Organiza- 
tion and  Administration  of  Teachers'  College.  Teachers'  Coll.  Rec,  i :  36-59 
(1900). 

Salisbury,  Albert.  Historical  Sketch  of  Normal  Instruction  in  Wisconsin. 
Whitewater,  Wis.,  pp.  79,  ill.  1893. 

Salisbury,  Albert.  Historical  Sketch  of  Normal  Instruction  in  Wisconsin,  pp.  103. 
Madison,  1876.     Also  Proc.  of  N.  E.  A.  1897.     Normal  Schools  of  Wisconsin. 

Salmon,  L.  M.     Training  Teachers  in  France.   Educa.  Rev.,  20:  383-404  (1900). 

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1896). 

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struction, pp.  59-77  (1890J. 

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Snyder,  Z.  X.,  Chairman.  Report  of  Committee  on  Normal  Schools.  Proc.  N, 
E.  A.,  p.  836  ff.  1899.  Very  valuable.  See  also  Preliminary  Report  in 
Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  p.  729  ff.  1898. 

Stowe,  Calvin  E.  Normal  Schools  and  Teachers'  Seminaries.  Am.  Jour.  Educa., 
15:683  (1887). 

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Tarbell,  H.  S.,  and  Others.  Training  of  Teachers.  Bureau  of  Education,  Circular 
of  Information,  No.  6  (18S8).     Draper,  Wickersham  and  others. 

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(1892). 

Reports,  PublicationB  and  Catalogues  of  Universitiea,  Colleges,  and  State  Normal 
Schools. 


APPENDIX 

OUTLINES  ON   THE   HISTORY  OF   EDUCATION  AS  OF- 
FERED IN  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  NEBRASKA,  1901 

In  order  to  make  clearer  some  of  the  points  raised 
in  chapter  five  concerning  pedagogical  courses  and 
the  method  of  treatment,  it  has  been  thought  advisable  to  publish  a 
set  of  outlines  as  furnished  to  the  students,  covering  one  of  the  pro- 
fessional courses.  The  outlines  on  the  history  of  education  were 
used  rather  than  others,  partly  on  account  of  the  many  calls  that  are 
received  for  these  outlines,  and  partly  on  account  of  the  stress 
placed  upon  this  subject  by  schoolmen,  and  its  broader  and  more 
general  treatment. 

The  body  of  the  work  remains  somewhat  constant,  but  the  refer- 
ences and  questions  change  slightly  from  year  to  year.  The  refer- 
ences cover  only  the  English  material  on  the  subject  in  the  university 
library.  Other  references  are  added  in  class,  especially  the  more 
important  references  in  foreign  languages  which  can  be  read  with 
profit  by  members  of  the  class. 

The  method  of  treatment  has  already  been  described  in  chapter 
five.  But  we  may  add  that  the  student  is  required  to  keep  a  note- 
book, not  alone  on  account  of  the  value  of  its  content,  but  far  more 
on  account  of  the  educational  value  that  comes  from  learning  how 
to  select  wisely  and  express  clearly.  The  questions  answered  in  the 
note-book  are  only  in  part  similar  to  those  found  on  the  different 
outlines  to  be  answered  in  the  class. 

The  student's  final  grade  is  made  up  from  four  different  sources : 
^  depends  upon  his  note-book ;  ^  upon  his  class  work  ;  ^  upon 
his  monthly  conferences  with  the  instructor;  and  y^  upon  a  final 
examination. 

The  committing  to  memory  of  a  text-book,  however  valuable  the 
content,  may  store  the  mind  with  facts,  but  it  does  not  educate.  It 
263]  263 


264  APPENDIX  [264 

is  only  when  facts  are  seen  in  their  true  relations  that  they  become 
of  real  value.  True  education  consists  in  knowing  the  best,  and  in 
being  able  to  express  that  knowledge  clearly  and  effectively.  For 
this  reason  the  course  in  the  history  of  education  aims  to  develop 
the  student's  power  in  acquiring  and  imparting  knowledge,  as  well 
as  to  give  him  a  broader  and  richer  conception  of  the  human  race 
in  its  educational  development. 

I  desire  in  this  connection  to  acknowledge  my  indebtedness  to 
Professor  Earl  Barnes,  formerly  of  Leland  Stanford  University,  for 
much  that  is  contained  herein.  It  was  under  his  instruction  that  I 
obtained  the  first  real  knowledge  of  the  history  of  education,  and 
the  nucleus  from  which  these  outlines  have  resulted  is  traceable  to 
those  early  lessons. 


APPENDIX 


HISTORY  OF  HDUCATION 


DIRECTIONS   FOR  NOTE-BOOK. 

Directions  to  be  followed  in  the  preparation  of  Note-book  on  Pre- 
Christian  Education. 

Make  a  complete  bibliography  of  all  readings  for  permanent  record. 
Give  the  references  read  upon  each  topic  and  the  time  spent  in  reading, 
naming  the  reference  found  most  helpful. 

Put  complete  title  of  subject  on  first  line  of  first  page  and  the  main 
word  of  the  title  on  the  first  line  of  each  succeeding  page  devoted 
to  that  subject. 

Put  answers  and  paragraphic  parts  of  answers  in  paragraphic  form. 
Make  answers  clear  and  concise. 

Use  marginal-ruled  paper  and  place  the  name  of  the  author  or 
authors  in  the  right  hand  margin  at  the  close  of  the  paragraph.  Use 
quotation  marks  for  all  direct  quotations. 

TOPICS    FOR    NOTE-BOOK. 

1.  Environment  of  the  people. 

a.  Extent,  topography  and  climate  of  the  country. 

b.  Principal  productions,  industries  and  activities  of  the  people. 

c.  Nature  of  the  surrounding  country. 

2.  Origin  and  character  of  the  people. 

a.  Form   of  government. 

b.  Classes  of  society,  how  determined. 

c.  Religious  belief. 

d.  Social  and  family  life. 

e.  The    ideal   man,   judged    from    the   standpoint   of   the  nation 
studied. 

f.  The   ideal   woman. 

3.  Education. 

a.  Who  are  the  teachers?    How  esteemed?    What  are  the  neces- 
sary requirements  for  teaching? 
265]  265 


266  APPENDIX  [266 

b.  Sources  of  information  and  subjects  of  study. 

c.  Nature  and  efficiency  of  the  instruction. 

d.  Kind  of  buildings — books  and  apparatus  used. 

e.  Who  receive  the  benefit  of  education. 

f.  Length  of  term  and  age  at  which  the  different  subjects  are 

presented. 

4.  Ideal  or  aim  of  education,  and  its  practical  results. 

5.  Good  and  bad  features  of  the  educational  system. 

6.  Great  teachers  or  leaders  in  educational  thought. 


26;]  APPENDIX  267 

GENERAL    REFERENCES    ON   THE   HISTORY   OF 
EDUCATION. 

Baumeister,    A.     Handbuch    der   Erziehungs   und    Unterrichtslehre    fiir 
hohere  Schulen ;  Vol.  i.  Pt.  i,  on  Geschichte  der  Piidagogik,  by 
T.  Zeigler.     1895. 
Boone,   R.   G.     Education   in   the   United   States,  pp.  402.     Appleton  & 

Co.     1890. 
Browning,  Oscar.     Introduction  to   Educational  Theories,  pp.  237.     E. 

L.  Kellogg  &  Co.     N.  Y.,  1888. 
Cadet  Felix.     Port  Royal  Education,  pp.  406.     C.  W.  Bardeen.     Syra- 
cuse, N.  Y.,  1898. 
Compayre,  G.     History  of  Pedagogy,  pp.  598.     (Trans,  by  W.  H.  Payne.) 

D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.     1885. 
Conway,  M.  M.     History  of  Education,  pp.  75.     C.  W.  Bardeen.     Syra- 
cuse, N.  Y.,  1901. 
Cubberley,  E.  P.     Syllabus  of  Lectures  on  the  History  of  Education,^ 

pp.  298.     The  Macmillan  Co.,  N.  Y.     1902. 
Davidson,  Thos.     Aristotle    and    the    Ancient    Educational    Ideals,    pp. 
256.     Chas.  Scribner's  Sons.     N.  Y.,  1899. 
Education  of  the  Greek   People,   pp.  229.     Appleton 

&  Co.     N.  Y.,  1894. 
History    of    Education,    pp.    292.     Chas.    Scribner's 

Sons.     N.  Y.,  1900. 
Rousseau   and   Education   According  to  Nature,  pp. 
253.     Chas.  Scribner's  Sons.     N.  Y.,  1898. 
Hailman,  W.  N.     Lectures  on  the  History  of  Pedagogy,  pp.  130.     Van 

Antwerp,  Bragg  &  Co.     N.  Y.,  1874. 
Kemp,  E.  L.    History  of  Education,  pp.  385.    Lippincott  Co.    Phila.,  1902. 
Laurie,  S.  S.     Historical   Survey  of  Pre-Christian  Education,  pp.  411. 

2d  ed.  rev.     Longmans,  Green  &  Co.     N.  Y.,  1900. 
Mahaffy,  J.   P.     Old  Greek  Education,  pp.   139.     Harper  Brothers.     N. 

Y.,  1882. 
Monroe,    Paul.     Source-Book    of    the    History    of    Education    for    the 
Greek  and  Roman  Period,  pp.  515.     Macmillan  Co.  N.  Y.,  1901. 
Munroe,  James   P.     The  Educational   Ideal,   pp.   262.     D.   C.  Heath  & 

Co.     Boston,   1895. 
Painter,  F.  V.  N.     History  of  Education,  pp.  343.     D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

N.  Y.,  1886. 
Paulsen,   Fr.     Geschichte  des  gelehrten  Unterrichts.     (2d   ed.,  2  vols., 
1896.) 

'  A  valuable  book  for  departments  of  education.    It  was  received  after  the  major  part 
of  the  present  work  was  in  print  and  its  helpful  suggestions  could  not  be  utilized. 


268  APPENDIX  [268 

Payne,  Jos.  Lectures  on  the  History  of  Education.  Works.  Vol.  2. 
Longmans,  Green  &  Co.     N.  Y.,  1892. 

Payne,  W.  H.  History  of  Education,  pp.  105.  C.  W.  Bardeen.  Syra- 
cuse, N.  Y.,  1881. 

Quick,  R.  H.  Essays  on  Educational  Reformers.  Rev.  ed.,  pp.  335. 
E.  L.  Kellogg  &  Co.  N.  Y.,  1890.  Published  also  by  D.  Apple- 
ton  &  Co.,  N.  Y. 

Raumer,  Karl  G.  von.  Geschichte  der  Padagogik  vom  wiederaufbliihen 
Klassiker  Studien.  sth  ed.,  1877-80.  Translated  in  Barnard's 
Am.  Jour.  Educa. 

Schiller,  Hermann.  Lehrbuch  der  Geschichte  der  Padagogik.  2d  ed. 
1891. 

Schmidt,  K.  A.  Geschichte  der  Erziehung  vom  Anfang  an  bis  auf 
unsere   Zeit.     4   vols.     1884-1896. 

Schmidt,  Karl.     Geschichte  der  Padagogik.     4  vols.,  4th  ed.     1878-1886. 

Seeley,  Levi.  History  of  Education,  pp.  343.  American  Book  Co. 
N.Y.,  1899. 

Shoup,  W.  J.  History  and  Science  of  Education,  pp.  315.  American 
Book  Co.,   1891. 

Swett,  John.  American  Public  Schools,  pp.  320.  American  Book  Co. 
N.  Y.,  1900. 

Williams,  S.  G.  History  of  Modern  Education,  pp.  395.  C.  W.  Bar- 
deen.    Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  2d  ed.,  1896. 

Cyclopedias. 
Buisson,    F.      Dictionnaire    de    pedagogic    et    d'    instruction    primarie. 
Two  parts,  each  in  2  vols.     Pt.  i  contains  the  historical  articles. 
1886- 1887. 
Kiddle,  H.,  and  Schem,  A.  J.     Cyclopedia  of  Education,  1883. 
Lindner,  G.  A.     Encyklopadisches  Handbuch  der  Erziehungskunde,  mit 
besonderer  Beruck-sichtigung  des  Volksschulvi^esen.    i  vol.     1884. 
Rein,   Geo.   W.     Encyklopadisches   Handbuch   der   Padagogik.     7   vols. 

1895-1899. 
Sander,   F.     Lexikon   der   Padagogik.     i   vol.     1889. 
Schmid,  K.  A.     Encyklopadie  des  gesammten  Erziehungs-  und  Unter- 
richtswesen.     2d  ed.,   10  vols.     1876-1887. 
Piidagogische    Handbuch    fvir    Schule    und    Haus.     2d 
ed.,  2   vols.     1883-1885. 
Sonnenschein's    Cyclopedia    of    Education.     A.    E.    Fletcher,    editor,     i 
vol.     1889. 

Magazines   and  Periodical  Literature. 
American  Journal  of  Education;   edited  by  Henry   Barnard,  31   vols., 
1855-1881,  with  Index.     Contains  valuable  articles  on  history  of 
education. 


269]  APPENDIX  269 

Education;  Kasson  &  Palmer,  Boston,  i88i  to  date,  22  vols.,  ipcj. 
Contains  occasional  articles  on  the  history  of  education. 

Educational  Review ;  edited  by  Nicholas  Murray  Butler,  New  York, 
1891  to  date,  2^  vols.,  1902.  Occasional  articles  on  history  of 
education. 

Pedagogical  Seminary;  edited  by  G.  Stanley  Hall,  Worcester,  Mass., 
1891  to  date,  9  vols.,   1902. 

Proceedings  of  National  Educational  Association;  1857  to  date,  except- 
ing the  years  1861,  1862  and  1878.  Index  covering  the  years 
1857-1897. 

Reports  of  the  U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Education ;  1870  to  date.  Two 
volumes  per  year  since  1888.  In  connection  with  the  Circulars 
of  Information,  Bureau  of  Education,  most  valuable  on  the  his- 
tory of  education  in  the  United  States  and  recent  history  of  edu- 
cation in  foreign  countries. 

School  Review;  Chicago  University  Press,  1893  to  date,  10  vols.,  1902. 


270  APPENDIX  [270 

CHINESE. 

References: 

Baldwin,  S.  L.     Education  of  the  Chinese.     Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1886,  p.  211. 

Barnes,  Earl  and  Mary  S.     Historic  Ideals  and   Methods  of  Chinese 

Education.  Earl  Barnes'  Studies  in  Education,  vol.  i,  pp.  112-118. 
Bullock,  T.  L.  Competitive  Examinations  in  China.  19th  Cent.  36:87. 
Clarke,  J.  F.     Confucius  and  Chinese.     Atlan.  Mo.,  24:336. 

Chinese  Examinations.     Sat.  Rev.,  62 :582. 
Compayre,  G.     History  of  Pedagogy,  pp.  11-16. 

Competitive  Examinations.     Blackwood's  Mag.  138:479. 
Davidson,  Thos.     History  of  Education,  p.  41   ff. 

Dresslar,  F.   B.     Chinese  Pedagogics   in   Practice.     Educa.,  20:136-143. 
Eudo,   H.     Confucius    and   His    Educational    Ideals.     N.    E.   A.    Proc, 

1893,  p.  308. 
Hailman,   W.   N.     Lectures   on   Education,  pp.  9-17. 
Hue,  E.  R.     Travels  in  Chinese  Empire,  vol.  i,  pp.  130-143. 
Kemp,  E.  L.     History  of  Education,  pp.  17. 
Kiddle  &  Schem.     Cyclopedia  of  Education,  pp.  132-134,  244. 
Laurie,  S.  S.     History  of  Pre-Christian  Education,  2d  ed.,  pp.  103-152. 
Lee,  Yan  Phon.     When  I  Was  a  Boy  in  China,  p.  50  ff. 
Legge,  Jas.     Life  of  Confucius,  p.  i.     Also  the  Chinese,  pp.  1-96,  and 

the  Chinese   Classics,  7   vols. 
Painter,  F.  V.  N.     History  of  Education,  pp.  3-6. 
Payne,  Jos.     History  of  Education,  vol.  2,  pp.  3-6. 
Rosenkranz,  J.  K.  F.     Philosophy  of  Education,  pp.  196-200. 
Seeley,  Levi.     History  of  Education,  p.  20. 
Shoup,  W.  J.     History  and  Science  of  Education,  pp.  141-143. 
Smith,  A.  H.     Village  Life  in  China,  pp.  70-140. 
Sonnenschein.     Cyclopedia  of  Education,  pp.  373-376. 
Taylor,  H.  O.     Ancient  Ideals,  1:17-57. 
Williams,  S.  G.     Woman  in  China.     New  Eng.  38:184. 

Boys  and  Young  Men.     New  Eng.  27  -297. 
For   further   reference,   see   Encyclopedia,   and   recent 
magazines. 

Some  of  the  Questions  to  be  Considered  in  the  Education  of  the 
Various    Countries. 

1.  What  are   our  principal   sources   of   information? 

2.  Territorial  limitations  and  natural  conditions  of  the  country. 

3.  Government  and  religion  in  their  effect  upon  education. 

4.  The  instruments  of  education  employed,  i.  e.,  books,  buildings  and 
apparatus,  and  also  teachers. 

5.  The  methods  of  education. 


271]  APPENDIX  271 

6.  Divisions  or  classes  of  society. 

7.  Social  and   family  life. 

8.  Who  received  the  benefits  of  education? 

9.  What  distinction  is  made  in  regard  to  sex? 

10.  How  is  education  managed? 

11.  What  is  the  aim  or  ideal  of  education? 

12.  What  are  its  practical  results? 

13.  Good  and  bad  features  of  the  educational  system. 

From  Chinese  Records,  the  Hsiao  King  and  the  Li  Ki. 

"  The  Master  said,  Now  filial  piety  is  the  root  of  (all)  virtue  and 
(the  stem)  out  of  which  grows  (all  moral)  teaching.  Sit  down  again, 
and  I  will  explain  the  subject  to  you.  Our  bodies — to  every  hair  and 
bit  of  skin —  are  received  by  us  from  our  parents,  and  we  must  not 
presume  to  injure  or  wound  them;  this  is  the  beginning  of  filial  piety. 
When  we  have  established  our  character  by  practice  of  the  (filial) 
course,  so  as  to  make  our  name  famous  in  future  ages,  and  thereby 
glorify  our  parents :  this  is  the  end  of  filial  piety.  It  commences  with 
the  service  of  parents ;  it  proceeds  to  the  service  of  rulers ;  it  is  com- 
pleted by  the  establishment  of  the  character."  ^ 

"  The  Rules  of  Propriety  are  simply  (the  development  of)  the  prin- 
ciple of  Reverence.  Therefore  the  reverence  paid  to  the  father  makes 
(all)  sons  pleased;  the  reverence  paid  to  an  elder  brother  makes  (all) 
younger  brothers  pleased;  the  reverence  paid  to  a  ruler  makes  (all) 
subjects  pleased.  The  reverence  paid  to  one  man  makes  thousands 
and  myriads  of  men  pleased.  The  reverence  is  paid  to  few,  and  the 
pleasure  extends  to  many — this  is  what  is  meant  by  an  "  All-embracing 
Rule  of  Conduct."  2 

"  If  a  man  observe  the  rules  of  propriety,  he  is  in  a  condition  of 
security ;  if  he  do  not,  he  is  in  one  of  danger.  Hence,  there  is  the  saying, 
*  The  rules  of  propriety  should  by  no  means  be  left  unlearned.'  Pro- 
priety is  seen  in  humbling  one's  self  and  giving  honor  to  others.  Even 
porters  and  peddlers  are  sure  to  display  this  honor  (in  some  cases)  ; 
how  much  more  should  the  rich  and  noble  do  so  (in  all)  !  When  the 
rich  and  noble  know  to  love  propriety,  they  do  not  become  proud  nor 
dissolute.  When  the  poor  and  mean  know  to  love  propriety,  their 
minds  do  not  become  cowardly."  ' 

'  In  Sacred  Books  of  the  East.  Translated  by  Jas.  Legge,  edited  by  F.  Max  Muller. 
3d  edition.    Oxford,  1S99.  3:466. 

*Ibid..  3:482.  "  Ibid.,  Oxford.  i88s.  27:65. 


272  APPENDIX  [^2y2 

INDIA  AND  THE  HINDUS. 

References: 

Clarke,  J.  F.     Brahmanism,  Atlan.  Mo.,  23 :548. 

Clarke,  J.  F.  Buddhism  or  Protestantism  of  the  East.  Atlan.  Mo., 
23713- 

Compayre,  G.     History  of  Pedagogy,  pp.  2-6. 

Davidson's  History  of  Education,  p.  58. 

Davies,  William.     Religion  of  Gotama  Buddha.     Atlan.  Mo.,  74:334. 

DuBois,  A.  J.     People  of  India.     North  Amer.  Rev.,  9:38. 

Hewitt,  A.  F.  Catholic  Education  in  India  (Modern).  Cath.  World, 
6s  :289. 

Kemp,  E.  L.     History  of  Education,  p.  26. 

Kiddle  &  Schem.     Cyclopedia  of  Education,  pp.  456-457. 

Laurie.  S.  S.  Pre-Christian  Education,  pp.  165-188;  2d  ed.,  pp.  155-177. 
School  Rev.,  i  :668. 

Martin,  W.  A.  P.     The  Renaissance  in  China.     New  Eng.  28:47. 

McLauren,  J.     Anglo  Education  in  India.     Missionary  Rev.,  n.  s.,  13  -.^og. 

Painter,  F.  V.  N.     History  of  Education,  pp.  15-21. 

Payne,  Jos.     History  of  Education,  v.  2,  pp.  6-8. 

Rosenkranz,  J.  K.  F.     Philosophy  of  Education,  pp.  200-202. 

Schmid,  K.  A.     Geschichte  der  Erziehung,  I. 

Seeley,  Levi.     History  of  Education,  p.  29. 

Shoup,  W.  J.     History  and  Science  of  Education,  pp.  138-140. 

Sonnenschein.     Cyclopedia  of  Education,  pp.  379-385. 

Taylor.  H.  O.     Ancient  Ideals,  i  :84. 

Vas,  S.  Some  Religious  Temples  in  India  (Modern).  Cath.  World, 
73  :569. 

Ward,  W.  Writings,  Religion  and  Manners  of  the  Hindus.  Edin- 
burgh Review,  29:377. 

Wilder,  R.  P.    Educated  Classes  in  India.    Missionary  Rev.,  n.  s.,  li  :897. 

In    your    study    of    Hindu    education,    follow    suggestions    as    given 
in  the  former  lesson. 

1.  Note    political    and    religious    variations    from    the    Chinese    and 
their  effect  upon  education. 

2.  Account  for  these  changes. 

3.  Do  they  represent  a  higher  or  a  lower  civilization?    Why? 

4.  What  industries  were  known  to  the  Hindu? 

5.  What  classes  of  society  were  recognized? 

6.  On    what    was    class    distinction    based?     What    effect    has    caste 
on    education  ? 

7.  Characterize  their  ideal  man  ;  the  ideal  woman. 

In  pre-Christian  education  our  thought   will  be  confined   largeK  to 
the  "  Golden  Age  "  of  the  people. 


273]  APPENDIX  273 

Extracts  from  Hindu  Records.  ,;{ 

"Natural  dispositions  can  be  altered  by  education."  ''')■'. 

"  Water  though  heated  gets  back  its  chilliness." 

"A  man  will,  without  any  doubt,  become  similar  to  those  by  whom 
he  is  waited  upon,  or  to  those  on  whom  he  himself  waits."  From 
Pant?chatantra :   Trans,   by   Ludwig  Fritze,    1884. 

"  To  learn  and  to  understand  the  Vedas,  to  practice  pious  morti- 
fications, to  acquire  divine  knowledge  of  the  law  and  of  philosophy, 
to  treat  with  veneration  his  natural  and  spiritual  father,  these  are 
the  chief  duties  by  means  of  which  endless  felicity  is  obtained." 
"  Women  have  no  business  to  repeat  texts  from  the  Vedas.  This  is 
the  law  established."  "  Let  not  a  husband  eat  with  his  wife,  nor  look 
at  her  eating." 

■'  No  act  is  to  be  done  according  to  her  own  will  by  a  young  girl,  a 
young  woman,  or  even  by  an  old  woman,  though  in  their  own  houses." 
Laws  of  Manu,  Lect.  V.  147. 

"In  her  childhood  a  girl  should  be  under  her  father;  in  her  youth, 
of  her  husband ;  her  husband  being  dead,  of  her  sons ;  a  woman  should 
never  enjoy  her  own  will."     Lect.  V,  148. 

"  She  who.  restrained  in  mind,  speech,  and  body,  is  not  unfaithful  to 
her  husband,  attains  the  abode  of  her  husband,  and  is  called  virtuous 
by  the  good."     Lect.  IX,  29. 

"  One  who  understands  the  Veda-treatise  deserves  rule  over  armies, 
kingly  power,  the  right  to  adjudge  punishment,  and  the  governorship 
of  all  the  world."     Lect.  XII.   100. 

"  Those  who  have  perused  many  literary  compositions  are  superior 
to  those  who  are  ignorant;  those  who  remember  what  they  learn  are 
better  than  those  who  have  perused  many  literary  compositions ;  those 
who  understand  what  they  learn  are  superior  to  those  who  remember 
it ;  those  who  practice  what  they  learn  are  better  than  those  who  un- 
derstand  it."     Lect.   XII.    103. 

"  The  best  source  of  deliverance  for  a  Brahman  is  (ascetic)  austerity 
and  (Vedic)  wisdom;  through  (ascetic)  austerity  one  slays  sin,  through 
(Vedic)  wisdom  one  gets  immortality."  Lect.  XII.  104.  The  last  para- 
graphs have  been  quoted  from  The  Ordinances  of  Manu,  Triibner's 
Oriental  Series,  edited  by  E.  W.  Hopkins,  Columbia  College,  N.  Y., 
1884. 


274  APPENDIX  [274 

PERSIANS. 
References: 

Arnold,   Mathew.     Persian   Passion   Play.     Cornh.,  24:668. 
Benjamin,  S.  G.  W.     A  Glance  at  the  Arts  of  Persia.     Cent.,  10:716. 

Domestic  and   Court   Customs.     Harper,   72:217; 

also,    The    Tazieth    or    Persian    Passion    Play, 

Harper,    72  -.^60. 
Clarke,  J.  F.     Zoroaster  and  the  Zend-Avesta.     Atlan.  Mo.,  24:150. 
Davidson,  Thos.     History  of  Education,  p.  66. 
Emerson,  R.  W.     Persian  Poetry.     Atlan.   Mo.,   i  :724. 
Herodotus.     History,  Trans,  by  Cary,  pp.  61-62. 
Jackson,  A.  W.     Teaching  of  the  Ancient  Zoroastrian  Religion.     Public 

Opinion,  21  :53i. 
Karib,  Ruel  B.     Persian  Women.     Cosmop.,   13 :668. 
Kemp,  E.  L.     History  of  Education,  p.  34. 
Kiddle  &  Schem.     Cyclopedia  of  Education,  pp.  691-693. 
Laurie,  S.  S.     History  of  Early  Education.     School   Rev.,  2:129. 

Survey  of  Pre-Christian  Education,  pp.  189-208;  2d  ed., 
pp.  178-195- 
Macaulay,  G.  C.     The  History  of  Herodotus,   i  :6oh7i. 
Painter,  F.  V.  N.     History  of  Education,  pp.  21-26. 
Pelly,  Sir  Lewis.     Persian  Miracle  Play.     Edinb.  Rev.,  151 :73. 
Payne,  Joseph.     History  of  Education,  2  -.g. 

Persian  Manners.     All  the  Year,  9:371. 
Rawlinson,  G.     Five  Great  Monarchies,   i  :39i ;  3  :238-247. 
Rosenkranz,  J.  K.  F.     Philosophy  of  Education,  p.  207. 
Sayce,  A.  H.     The  Ancient  Empires  of  the  East. 
Schmid,  K.  A.     Geschichte  der  Erziehung,  i. 
Seeley,  Levi.     History  of  Education,  p.  36. 
Shoup,  W.  J.     History  and  Science  of  Education,  p.  133. 
Tennyson,  Lionel.     Persia  and  its  Passion  Drama.     19th  Cent.,  9:623. 
Williams,  Monier.     Religion  of  Zoroaster.     19th  Cent.,  9:155. 

Persian  Characteristics.     Nation,  i  :3i4. 
Strachey,  Edward.     Persian  Poetry.     Atlan.  Mo.,  71  :322. 
Sonnenschein.     Cyclopedia  of  Education,  pp.  385-388. 
Xenophon.     Cyropedeia,  Book  L  Ch.  2. 

1.  Compare   Persian   Education   with  the  education   of  the  countries 
already  studied. 

2.  Does  Persia  represent  an  earlier  or  later  civilization?     Give  rea- 
sons for  answer. 

3.  Who  received  the  benefits  of  education? 

4.  Show    how   their   religious   belief   influenced    their   education   and 
political  life. 


2/5]  APPENDIX  275 

5.  What  did  they  consider  the  three  cardinal  virtues?     Why? 

6.  What  was  their  ideal  man?     Their  ideal  woman? 

7.  Describe  their  system  of  education. 

8.  Who  were  the  Magi?  How  did  they  obtain  their  office?  How 
educated  ?     How  esteemed  ? 

9.  The  nature  of  the  Persian  literature? 

Extracts  from  Persian  Records  and  Herodotus. 

"  He  who  is  less  than  thee  consider  as  an  equal,  and  an  equal  as  a 
superior,  and  a  greater  than  he  as  a  chieftain,  and  a  chieftain  as  a 
ruler.  Among  rulers  one  is  to  be  acquiescent,  obedient  and  truth- 
speaking  ;  and  among  accusers  be  submissive,  mild  and  kindly  re- 
gardful. Good  government  is  that  which  maintains  and  directs  a  pro- 
vince flourishing,  the  poor  untroubled,  and  the  law  and  customs  true, 
and  sets  aside  improper  laws  and  customs.  It  well  maintains  water 
and  fire  by  law,  and  keeps  in  progress  the  ceremonial  of  the  sacred 
beings,   duties  and  good  works." 

"  The  Persians  more  than  any  other  men  admit  foreign  usages ;  .  .  . 
they  adopt  all  kinds  of  luxuries  when  they  hear  of  them.  ...  It  is 
established  as  a  sign  of  manly  excellence,  next  after  excellence  in  fight, 
to  be  able  to  show  many  sons ;  and  to  those  who  have  the  most,  the  king 
sends  gifts  every  year,  for  they  consider  number  to  be  a  source  of 
strength.  And  they  educate  their  children,  beginning  at  five  years  old 
and  going  on  till  twenty,  in  three  things  only,  in  riding,  in  shooting, 
and  in  speaking  the  truth :  but  before  a  boy  is  five  years  of  age  he  does 
not  come  into  the  presence  of  his  father,  but  lives  with  the  women  ; 
and  it  is  so  done  for  this  reason,  that  if  the  child  should  die  while  he 
is  being  bred  up,  he  may  not  be  the  cause  of  any  grief  to  his  father.  .  .  . 
Whatever  things  it  is  not  lawful  for  them  to  do,  these  it  is  not  lawful 
for  them  to  even  speak  of:  and  the  most  disgraceful  thing  in  their 
estimation  is  to  tell  a  lie,  and  next  to  this,  to  owe  money."  Herodotus, 
Macaulay's  translation,  Book  i,  135-138. 


276  APPENDIX  [276 

HEBREWS. 

References: 

Abbott,   L.      Ancient  Hebrew    People.      Outlook,  65:72,   172,  218,   351, 

396,  593,  735- 
Andrews,  E.  Benj.     Institutes  of  General  History,  pp.  55-56;  see  also, 

Islam,  pp.  218-231. 
Bible.     Old  and  New  Testament. 
Blarckmar,   W.   F.     Social   Phenomena  of   Early   Hebrews.     Overland, 

n.  s.,  9:361-368. 
Compayre,  G.     History  of  Education,  pp.  6-1 1,  16. 
Davidson,  Thos.     History  of  Education,  pp.  77-86. 
Hosmer,  Jas.  K.     Story  of  the  Jews,  pp.  120-129. 
Josephus,  Flavius.     Works  of  Josephus,  pp.  27-29. 
Kemp,  E.  L.    History  of  Education,  p.  45. 
Kiddle  &  Schem.     Cyclopedia  of  Education,  p.  411. 
Laurie,  S.  S.     History    of    Early    Education.     School    Rev.,    i  :485-490, 
535-546. 
Pre-Christian  Education,  pp.  69-105 ;  2d  ed.,  pp.  65-IOO. 
Levy,  C.  H.     Education  among  the  Ancient  Hebrews.     Educa.,  I7:457- 
Mallery,  G.     Israelite  and  Indian  ;  a  Parallel  in  Planes  of  Culture.     Pop. 

Sci.  Mo.,  36:52-76,  193-213. 
Mielziner,  M.     Introduction  to  the  Talmud. 
Painter,  F.  V.  N.     History  of  Education,  pp.  26-32. 
Payne,  Jos.     History  of  Education,  II:io-ii. 
Raphall,    Rev.    M.    J.     Education    Among    the    Hebrews.     Am.    Jour. 

Educa.,  I  :243-246. 
Rawlinson,  G.     Ancient  Monarchies,   i  :6i. 

Renan,  Ernest.     History  of  the  People  of  Israel,  v.  4,  pp.  190-197. 
Rodkinson,  M.  L.     The  Babylonian  Talmud   (new  edition),  Vol.  I.  (xi.). 
Rosenkranz,  J.  K.  F.     Philosophy  of  Education,  pp.  241-250. 
Smith,  Wm.     Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  p.   156. 
Stowe,  C.  E.     The  Talmud.     Atlan.  Mo.,  21:673. 
Sonnenschein.     Cyclopedia  of  Education,  p.  370. 
Taylor,  H.  O.     Ancient  Ideals.     Vol.  2,  Chs.  17,  18,  21. 

Questions. 
The  Jews  represent  the  theocratic  system  of  education. 

1.  What    is   meant   by   this    system;    How    does    it    differ    from    the 
systems  already  considered  ? 

2.  Account   for  the  unusual   stability  of  the  Jewish   race. 

3.  Is  this  stability  or  permanence  of  racial  characteristics  to  be  de- 
sired in  an  ideal  system  of  education?     Why? 

4.  What  were  the  subjects  of  education?     Who  were  the  teachers? 
Has  the  position  of  woman  essentially  changed? 


277]  APPENDIX  277 

5.  What  are  the  five  great  turning-points  in  Hebrew  life  and  char- 
acter ? 

6.  What  is  the  nature  of  the  Tahnud? 

7.  What  debt  do  we  owe  to  Hebrew  civilization  ? 

Extracts  from  Hebrew  Records,  principally  the  Talmud. 

A  sage  met  a  friend  who,  having  a  cloth  carelessly  tied  around 
his  head,  was  hastily  taking  his  son  to  school.  "Why  such  haste?" 
inquired  he.  "  Because,"  replied  the  father,  "  the  duty  of  taking  the 
child  to  study  stands  before  everything  else." 

"As  soon  as  the  child  learns  to  speak,  the  father  should  teach  him 
to  say  in  Hebrew, — '  the  law  which  Moses  commanded  us  is  the 
heritage  of  the  Congregation  of  Jacob,' — and  also  the  first  verse  of 
the  Shema, — '  Hear,  O  Israel !  the  eternal  our  God,  is  One  God.' 
Just  as  a  man  is  bound  to  have  his  son  instructed  in  the  law  so  also 
should  he  have  his  son  taught  some  handicraft  or  profession.  Who- 
ever does  not  teach  his  son  a  handicraft  teaches  him  to  be  a  thief." 

"  Are  both  panting  under  some  heavy  burden  ? — ^the  teacher  must  be 
relieved  first,  and  then  the  father ;  should  both  be  imprisoned,  even 
then  should  the  teacher  be  redeemed  first ;  because  the  father  has 
given  the  son  temporal  life  only  whilst  the  teacher  is  the  cause  of  his 
gaining  spiritual  life." 

"  The  teacher  should  strive  to  make  the  lessons  agreeable  to  the 
pupils  by  clear  reason,  as  well  as  by  frequent  repetitions,  until  they 
thoroughly  understand  the  matter  and  are  able  to  recite  it  with  great 
fluency." 

"  The  qualities  of  the  sages  are :  Modesty,  meekness,  eagerness,  cour- 
age, bearing  wrongs  done  to  them,  and  being  endeared  to  every  one ; 
submission  to  the  members  of  their  household,  fear  of  sin,  and  judging 
every  one  according  to  his  deeds." 

"  Deliberate  before  a  word  passes  thy  lips,  and  be  thoughtful  how 
thou  should'st  act  in  worldly  afifairs." 

"  He  who  occupies  himself  only  with  the  study  of  the  Scripture  pur- 
sues the  right  course,  yet  the  sages  do  not  think  so ;  but  he  who  occu- 
pies himself  with  the  study  of  the  Talmud  pursues  a  course  than  which 
there  is  no  better." 

"The  beauty  of  the  law  is  wisdom ;  the  beauty  of  wisdom  is  modesty; 
the  beauty  of  modesty  is  the  fear  of  heaven ;  the  beauty  of  the  fear  of 
heaven  is  noble  performance :  the  beauty  of  noble  performance  is  secrecy 
(i.  e.,  not  publicly,  for  the  purpose  of  being  praised)." 


2/8  APPENDIX  [278 

EGYPTIANS. 
References: 
Baedeker,  Karl.     Lower  Egypt,  pp.  124-140,  250-251.     Upper  Egypt,  pp. 

101-230. 
Barnett,  P.  A.     Public  Education  in  Egypt.     Acad.,  38:414. 
Bell,  R.  T.     Education  in  Egypt.     19th  Cent.,  52  :4i2. 
Boscawen,  W.  St.  Chad.     Egypt  and  Chaldea  in  the  Light  of  Recent 

Discoveries.     Harpers   88:190. 
Boscawen,  W.   St.   Chad.     About  How  the  Old   Egyptians  Lived  and 

Died.     Blackw.  108 :302. 
Breasted,  J.  H.     A  Sketch  of  Egyptian  History.     Biblical  World,  9:415. 
Brugsch.   Bey  H.     (Review)    of   Hist,   of  Egypt  under  the   Pharaohs. 

Edinb.  Rev.,  150:40-58. 
Bunsen,   C.   C.  J.     Ancient   Egypt.     Edinb.   Rev.  83:391. 
Compayre,  G.     History  of  Pedagogy,  p.  14. 
Davidson,  Thos.     History  of  Education,  p.  2>7- 
Edwards,  Amelia  B.     Lying  in  State  in  Caria.     Harper,  65:185. 

Book  of  the  Dead.     Acad.,  23  :440. 
Herodotus.     History  (Trans,  by  Cary),  p.  108  ff. 
Hoar,  H.  H.     Religion  of  the  Egyptians.     19th  Cent.,  4:1105. 
Kemp,   E.  L.     History  of  Education,  p.  39. 
Kiddle  &  Schem.     Cyclopedia  of  Education,  pp.  254-256. 
Lang,    Andrew.     Egyptian    Divine    Myths.     19th    Cent.,    20:423. 
Laurie,  S.  S.     Ancient  Egyptians.     School  Rev.,  i  :353. 

Pre-Christian  Education,  pp.  13-52;  2d  ed.,  pp.  11-48. 
Lockyer,    J.    Norman.     Astronomy    and    Worship    in    Ancient    Egypt. 

19th   Cent.  32:29-51. 
Myers,  P.  V.  M.     Outlines  of  Ancient  History,  pp.  26-44. 
Painter,  F.  V.  N.     History  of  Education,  pp.  32-36. 
Payne,  Joseph.     History  of  Education,  2:8-10. 
Petrie,  W.  M.  F.     Grand  Tour  Three  Thousand  Years  Ago.     Harper, 

77 :297- 
Petrie,  W.  M.   F.     Oldest   Pyramid  and  Temple.     Acad.,  39 :376. 
Plutarch's  Morals   (Goodwin),  4:65. 

Proctor,   R.   A.     The  Pyramid  of  Cheops.     North  Am.   Rev.,   136:257. 
Rawlinson,  G.     Ancient  Egypt,  v.   i,  pp.   136,  302,  320,  496,  546,  569. 
Rollins,  Chas.     Ancient  History,  i  :i38-i56. 
Rosenkranz,  J.  K.  F.     Philosophy  of  Education,  pp.  211-214. 
Sayce,  A.  H.     Ancient  Empires  of  the  East. 
Seeley,  Levi.     History  of  Education,  p.  46. 
Schlegel.     History  of  Philosophy,  pp.   166-167. 
Shoup,  W.  J.     History  and  Science  of  Education,  pp.  133-137. 
Sonnenschein.     Cyclopedia  of  Education,  pp.  376-379. 
Taylor,   H.   O.     Ancient  Ideals,   1 117. 


279]  APPENDIX  279 

Un.Ierwood,  F.  H.     Egypt  under  the  Pharaohs.     Atlan.  Mo..  45:315. 
Wendel.  F.  C.  H.     Education  in  Ancient  Egypt.     Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  35  774. 
William.s,    J.     Religious    Ideas    of    Ancient    Egyptians.     Westm.    Rev., 

150:655. 
Wilson,  Edward  L.     Temple  of  Egypt.     Scrib.  Mag.,  4:387. 

The  Great  Pyramid.     Scrib.  Mag.,  3:41-63. 

Questions. 

1.  To  what  race  division  do  the  Egyptians  belong? 

2.  What  period  seems  to  represent  their  highest  civilization? 

3.  Into  what  classes  of  society  were  they  divided? 

4.  What  education  was  received  by  the  different  classes? 

5.  Was  there  any  opportunity  of  changing  from  a  lower  to  a 
higher  class? 

6.  What  arts  and  sciences  did  they  know? 

7.  What   would   you   designate   their   system   of   education? 

8.  What  was  their  religious  belief? 

g.  What  is  the  Egyptian  ideal  of  manhood  and  womanhood? 

10.  What   means   had    they   of   preserving   their   knowledge? 

11.  What  are  some  of  the  things  that  indicate  their  high  state  of 
civilization  ? 

12.  Account  for  the  decadence  of  Egyptian  civilization. 

Other  questions  will  be  added  in  class  to  be  considered  in  connection 
with  the  general  topics  given  on  the  first  outline. 

Extracts  from  Egyptian  Records. 

A  Soul's  Defence  before  Osiris.  "  I  have  not  been  idle,  I  have  not 
been  intoxicated ;  I  have  not  told  secrets ;  I  have  not  told  falsehoods ; 
I  have  not  defrauded ;  I  have  not  slandered ;  I  have  not  caused  tears ; 
I  have  given  food  to  the  hungry,  drink  to  the  thirsty,  and  clothes 
to  the  naked."     (From  the  book  of  the  dead.) 

From  Prince  Phtah-hotep's  Book  ^ — A  moral  treatise  on  filial  obedi- 
ence. "  The  obedient  son  shall  grow  old  and  obtain  favor ;  thus  have 
I  myself  become  an  old  man  on  earth  and  have  lived  no  years  in 
favor  with  the  king  and  approved  by  my  seniors." 

On  Freedom  From  Arrogance.  "If  thou  art  become  great,  after 
thou  hast  become  humble,  and  if  thou  hast  amassed  riches  after 
poverty,  being  because  of  that  thou  art  first  in  the  town,  if  thou  art 
known  for  thy  wealth  and  art  become  a  great  lord,  let  not  thine 
heart  become  proud  of  thy  riches,  for  it  is  God  who  is  author  of  them. 
Despi.«e  not  another  who  is  as  thou  wast ;  be  toward  him  as  toward 
thy  equal." 

'  Said  to  be  the  oldest  book  in  the  world  (3600  B.  C).    In  National  Library,  Paris. 


28o  APPENDIX  [280 

On  Cheerfulness.  "Let  thy  face  be  cheerful  as  long  as  thou  livest; 
has  any  one  come  out  of  the  coffin  after  being  once  interred?" 

The  Laborer.  "  Have  you  ever  represented  to  yourself  in  imagin- 
ation the  estate  of  the  rustic  who  tills  the  ground?  Before  he  has 
put  the  sickle  to  his  crops  the  locusts  have  blasted  part  thereof;  then 
come  the  rats  and  the  birds.  If  he  is  slack  in  housing  his  crop,  the 
thieves  are  on  him.  His  horse  dies  of  weariness  as  it  drags  the  wain. 
The  tax  collector  arrives ;  his  agents  are  armed  with  clubs,  he  has 
negroes  with  him  who  carry  whips  of  palm  branches.  They  all  cry, 
"  give  us  your  grain."  and  he  has  no  way  of  avoiding  their  extortion- 
ate demands.  Next  the  wretch  is  bound  and  sent  off  to  work,  with- 
out wages,  at  the  canals ;  his  wife  is  taken  and  chained,  his  children 
are  stripped  and  plundered."  Written  by  Amenemha,  the  chief 
librarian  of  Rameses  the  Great,  to  the  poet  pentatour  (From  a 
papyrus  in  the  British  Museum). 

The  Overseer.  "  I  was  appointed  overseer  of  the  serfs  of  the 
temple  of  the  gods  of  Mah,  3000  bulls  with  heifers.     I  was  praised  on 

account  of  it  by  the  palace  for  the  yearly  produce  of  cattle 

No  little  child  have  I  injured;  no  widow  have  I  oppressed;  no  fisher- 
man have  I  hindered ;  no  shepherd  have  I  detained ;  no  foreman  of 
five  men  have  I  taken  from  his  gang  out  for  the  labor.  There  was 
no  poverty  in  my  days,  no  starvation  in  my  time ;  when  there  were 
years  of  famine,  I  ploughed  all  the  fields  of  Mah  to  its  southern  and 
northern  frontiers ;  I  gave  life  to  its  inhabitants,  making  its  food ;  no 
one  starved  in  it.  I  gave  to  the  widow  as  to  the  married  woman.  I 
made  no  difference  between  the  great  and  the  little  in  all  I  did." 
From  the  inscription  of  Ameni  Amenemha  in  a  chamber  of  a  tomb 
at  Benhassan  (Records  of  the  Past,  12:63).  See  also  2:75,  Quota- 
tion from  King  Rameses  H. 

An  affectionate  mother  to  her  child.  "Thou  wast  put  to  school 
and  whilst  thou  wast  being  taught  letters  she  came  punctually  to  thy 
master,  bringing  thee  the  bread  and  drink  of  her  house  Thou  art  now 
come  to  man's  estate ;  thou  art  married  and  hast  a  house ;  but  never 
do  thou  forget  the  painful  labor  which  thy  mother  endured,  nor  all 
the  salutary  care  she  has  taken  of  thee.  Take  heed  lest  she  have 
cause  to  complain  of  thee,  for  fear  that  she  should  raise  her  hands 
to  God,  and  He  should  listen  to  her  prayer." — From  the  maxims  of 
Ani — 5th   Dynasty. 


28 1]  APPENDIX  281 

GREECE. 
References: 

Ball,  B.  W.     Woman's  Rights  in  Ancient  Athens.     Atlan.  Mo.,  27:273. 
Barnard,  H.   (editor).     Schools   ....  in  Ancient  Greece.     Am.  Jour. 
Educa.,  27:72,7-75^;  30:907. 
Aristotle    and    His    Educational    Views.      Am. 
Jour.  Educa.,  14-131. 
Bosanquet,    B.     Education  of  Children   in   Plato's   Republic. 
Bryan,  W.  L.  and  Charlotte  L.     Plato  the  Teacher,  and  the  Republic 

of  Plato. 
Browning,  O.     Educational  Theories   (Kellogg),  pp.  7-24. 
Chauvin,  L.    Education  in  Ancient  Greece.    Educa.  Rev.,  2:308. 
Compayre,  G.     History  of  Pedagogy,  Ch.  2. 

Davidson,  Thos.     Education  of  Greek  People;  also  History  of  Educa- 
tion, p.  86. 
Aristotle  and   Ancient   Educational   Ideals. 
Duruy,  V.     History  of  Greece,  i  and  2. 
Fling,  F.  M.     Studies  in  European  History. 

Greek  and  Roman  Civilization. 
Grote,  G.     Plato  and  the  Other  Companions  of  Socrates.     Edinb.  Rev., 

123 :297. 
Grote,  G.     Aristotle.     Edinb.  Rev.  136:515. 
History  of  Greece   (see  Index). 
Guhl,  E.,  &  Koner,  W.     Life  of  Greeks  and  Romans,  pp.  183-199. 
Hailman,  W.  N.     Lectures  on  History  of  Education,  Lecture  2. 
Herodotus.     History.     Translated  by  Gary. 
Hesiod.     Theogony — Works  and  Days   (Banks'  Trans.). 
Homer's  Iliad  and  Odyssey. 
Kemp,  E.  L.     History  of  Education,  p.  55. 
Kiddle  &   Schem.     Cyclopedia   of   Education,   pp.   32,   38,   56,  300,   330, 

471,  706,  717,  786. 
Kirkpatrick,    Edw.     Higher   Education   in    Greece.     Am.   Jour.   Educa., 

24 :453- 
Laurie,  S.  S.     History  of   Early   Education.     School   Rev.,   2:214,  4I9. 
487. 
Pre-Christian    Education,    pp.    208-318;    also    New    Edi- 
tion, p.  196. 
Lewes,  G.  H.     History  of  Philosophy,  v.  i,  pp.  127,  196,  275. 
Mahaffy,  J.  P.     Old  Greek  Education ;  also  Social  Life  in  Greece. 
Monroe,   Paul.     Source   Book  of   the  History  of  Education. 
Painter,  F.  V.  N.     History  of  Education,  p.  ZJ- 
Payne,  Joseph.     History  of  Education,  2:12-21. 
Payne,  W.  M.     History  of  Education,  pp.  17-21. 

Plato.    Dialogues   of   Plato,   including   The   Republic,   and   The   Laws 
(Jowett  Trans.). 


282  APPENDIX  [282 

Plutarch.     Morals   (Goodin  Trans.),  1:3-32,  82-101;  5:399-411. 

Reinhart,  J.     Outline  of  the  Historj'  of  Education,  pp.  13-20. 

Schiller,  H.     Lehrbuch  der  Geschiclite  der  Padagogik. 

Schmid,  K.  A.     Geschichte  der  Erziehung,  I. 

Seeley,  L.     History  of  Education,  p.  68. 

Shoup,  W.  J.     History  and  Science  of  Education,  p.  148. 

Sonnenschein.     Cyclopedia  of  Education,  pp.  31,  144,  299,  272. 

Taylor,  H.  O.     Ancient  Ideals,  1:127,  201. 

Zeller.     Socrates  and  Socratic  Schools.     Plato  and  Older  Academy. 

Periodicals. 
Bent,  J.  T.     Education  of  Greece.     Fortn.  Rev.,  48 :267. 
Burnside,  M.     Study  of  Greece.     Educa.,  10:541  ;  11:23,  106,  158,  220. 
Cesaresco,  E.  M.     Peasants  of  Ancient  Greece.     Contemp.,  y2  :887. 
Chase,  T.     Early  Days  of  Ancient  Greece.     North  Am.  Rev.,  87:481. 

Children's  Plays  in  Ancient  Greece  and  Rome.    Cornh.  20 :285. 
Donaldson,  J.     Female  Society  in  Ancient  Greece  (Athens).     Contemp., 

34 :700.     Sparta.     Contemp.   32 :647. 
Gladstone,  W.  E.     Greek  Mythology.     19th  Cent.  21 :46o,  748 ;  22 :79. 
Godwin,  E.  W.     The  Home  in  Ancient  Greece  According  to  Homer. 

19th  Cent.,  19:914. 
Gribble,    N.     Religion   and    Conduct   of   Ancient   Greece.     Fortn.    Rev., 

55 :439- 
Lowery,  Chas.  E.     (Trans.)     Physical   Education  Among  the   Greeks. 

Report  U.  S.  Comr.  of  Educa.,  1897-1898,  1:571-589. 
Mah^fFy,  J.  P.     Theatre  of  Dionyses  at  Athens.     Acad.,  35  :3i3. 
Muore,  E.  C.     Philosophy  and  Early  Education  in  Greece.     Calif.  Univ. 

Chron..  3  :i24. 
Prrrott,    Geo.     The   Environment   of    Greek    Culture.     Pop.    Sci.    Mo., 

42:193. 
I'omeroy,  J.  N.     Religion  and  Laws  of  Ancient  Greece.     Nation,  18:204. 
Quinn,  Daniel.     Education  in  Greece.  Report  U.   S.  Comr.  of  Educa., 

1896-1897,  I,  pp.  271-280. 
Sterrett,  J.  R.  S.     The  Spade  before  the  Sword.     Nation,  64:313. 
Wenley,  R.  M.     The  Socratic  Method.     Educa.  Rev.,  2:406. 
Whitaker,   F.   E.     Young  Greek   Boys   and   Old   Greek   Schools.     Pop. 

Sci.  Mo.,  53:809-821. 
Xenophon.     Memorabilia. 

Suggestions  and  Questions. 
In  the  Greek,  we  have  the  highest  and  richest  expression  of  the 
Aryan  civilization.  No  other  people  offer  in  so  short  a  period  so  much 
that  is  worthy  of  our  admiration.  In  many  lines  of  thought  they 
seem  to  have  exhausted  human  capabilities  and  set  the  standard  for 
future  generations.  For  this  reason  the  student  of  pedagogy  must 
turn  with  more  than  usual  interest  to  the  study  of  the  Greek  ideals 
and  their  processes  of  attaining  them. 


UNIVERSITY    ? 

OF 

283  ]  ""■■^'*''* '- '  '"^  • "  ^'■Afi'ENDIX  283 

Some  Important  Dates  in  Greek  History. 
"Trojan  War,  1183  B.  C.  (?);  Homer  about  950  and  Hesiod  about 
850  B.  C. ;  Spartan  Power  dominant  in  the  Peloponnesus,  650  B.  C. 
Athens, — Legislation  of  Solon,  590  B.  C. ;  Persian  invasion  and  battle 
of  Marathon,  490  B.  C. ;  Invasion  by  Xerxes,  burning  of  Athens,  and 
battle  of  Salamis,  480  B.  C. ;  Battle  of  Plataea,  479  B.  C.  Supremacy 
of  Athens.  Peloponnesian  War,  431-404  B.  C. ;  Defeat  of  Athens  and 
supremacy  of  Sparta,  404  B.  C. ;  Spartan  Wars  vi^ith  Persia  and 
Darius ;  divisions  of  Greece ;  ascendency  of  Philip  of  Macedon  over 
Greece,  338  B.  C. ;  Alexander  the  Great.  Greece  made  a  Roman  pro- 
vince, 146  B.  C."  S.  S.  Laurie,  Pre-Christian  Education,  p.  208,  ist 
edition. 

1.  In  what  lines  of  activity  did  Greece  produce  masters? 

2.  Name  a  few  of  these  masters. 

3.  How  do  you  account  for  Greek  versatility  and  greatness? 

4.  Note  religion,  form  of  government  and  principal  pre-Socratic 
means  of  education. 

Extracts  from  Thucydides'  account  of  Pericles. 

"And  in  the  matter  of  education,  whereas  they  (the  Spartans)  from 
early  youth  are  always  undergoing  laborious  exercises  which  are 
to  make  them  brave,  we  live  at  ease,  and  yet  are  equally  ready  to  face 
the  perils  which  they  face." 

"  Then  we  are  lovers  of  the  beautiful,  yet  simple  in  our  tastes,  and 
we  cultivate  the  mind  without  loss  of  manliness."  ..."  The  great 
impediment  to  action  is  in  our  opinion,  not  discussion,  but  the  want  of 
that  knowledge  which  is  gained  by  discussion  preparatory  to  action; 
for  we  have  a  peculiar  power  of  thinking  before  we  act  and  of  acting 
too,  whereas  other  men  are  courageous  from  ignorance  but  hesitate 
upon  reflection."  ..."  I  say  that  Athens  is  the  school  of  Hellas,  and 
that  the  individual  Athenian  in  his  own  person  seems  to  have  the 
power  of  adapting  himself  to  the  most  varied  forms  of  action  with 
the  utmost  versatility  and  grace." 

Suggestions. 

1.  Many  schools  of  Philosophy  took  their  rise  in  and  about  Athens  as 
the  result  of  some  great  teacher,  around  whom  many  students  con- 
gregated. Such  were  the  schools  of  Pythagoras,  Socrates,  the 
Academy  of  Plato,  the  Lyceum  of  Aristotle,  and  the  schools  of  the 
Epicureans  and  the  Stoics. 

2.  The  nature  of  these  schools. 

3.  Other  schools  that  existed  at  the  time,  including  the  teachers  and 
subjects  of  study. 

4.  Compare  earlier  and  later  Grecian  civilization  and  education,  i.  e., 
pre-Socratic  and  Socratic  periods. 


284  APPENDIX  [284 

Spartans. 
References: 

Browning,  O.     Educational  Theories,  Chap.  I. 
Compayre,  G.     History  of  Pedagogy,  p.  18. 
Davidson,  Thos.     Education  of  Greek  People. 

Aristotle,  Spartan  Education,  p.  42;  also  History  of 
Education,  p.  86. 

Education   among   Spartans.     Am.   Jour.   Educa.,   3 : 
85;  14:611. 
Duruy,  V.     History  of  Greece,  i  1457. 

Falke,  J.  von.     Greece  and  Rome:  Their  Life  and  Art   (see  Index). 
Fustel  de  Contanges.     Ancient  City.     (Read  whole  book  during  year.) 
Hailman,  W.  N.     Lectures  on  History  of  Education,  Lecture  IL 
Kemp,  E.  L.     History  of  Education,  p.  57. 
Laurie,  S.  S.     History   of   Early   Education.     School   Rev.,   2 :337-356. 

Pre-Christian  Education,  p.  240:  new  edition,  p.  226. 
Lambros,  S.  D.     Olympic  Games. 

Mahaffy,  J.  P.     Old  Greek  Education.     Chaps.  13,  27,  77,  108. 
Monroe,  Paul.     Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education. 
Muller,   C.   O.      History   and   Antiquities   of  the   Doric   Race.      Edinb. 

Rev.,  53:119- 
Painter,  F.  V.  N.     History  of  Education,  p.  40. 
Payne,  Jos.     History  of  Education,  2:14. 
Plutarch's  Morals  (Goodwin).  1:82,  385. 

Lives    (see  Lycurgus)  ;  see  also  Ideal  Commonwealth. 
Sayce,   A.   H.     Phoenicians   in    Ancient   Greece.     Contemp.,   34 :6o. 
Seeley,  L.     History  of  Education,  p.  68. 
Shoup,  W.  J.     History  of  Education,  p.  145. 
Sonnenschein.     Cyclopedia  of  Education,  p.   174. 
Xenophon.     Cyropedeia. 

Questions. 

1.  Compare  the  education  of  the  Spartans  with  the  Persians  on  the 
one  hand  and  the  Athenians  on  the  other. 

2.  Was  their  education  in  any  sense  individualistic? 

3.  Are  we  justified  in  classing  the  Spartan  system  of  military  train- 
ing among  the  system  of  education?     Why? 

4.  What  was  their  ideal  man?  their  ideal  woman? 

5.  By  what  means  were  these  to  be  obtained? 

6.  Who  were  the  subjects  of  their  training? 

7.  Did  they  pursue  the  best  means  of  accomplishing  their  object? 

8.  What  may  be  said  of  their  speech,  their  music,  their  courage,  their 
efficiency? 


285]  APPENDIX  285 

Extracts  from  Plutarch's  Lives   (Lycurgus). 

"  After  regulating  the  marriages,  he  ordered  the  maidens  to  exercise 
themselves  with  wrestling,  running,  throwing  the  quoits,  and  casting 
the  dart,  to  the  end  that  the  fruit  they  conceived  might  in  strong  and 
healthier  bodies  take  firmer  root  and  find  better  growth." 

"  Nor  was  it  in  the  power  of  the  father  to  dispose  of  the  child  as  he 
saw  (fit)  ;  he  was  obliged  to  carry  it  before  certain  triers  at  a  place  called 
Lesche ;  those  were  some  of  the  elders  of  the  tribe  to  which  the  child  be- 
longed ;  their  business  it  was  to  carefully  view  the  infant,  and  if  they 
found  it  stout  and  well  made  they  gave  order  for  its  rearing,  and 
allotted  to  it  one  of  the  nine  thousand  shares  of  land.  But  if  they 
found  it  puny  and  ill-shapen  they  ordered  it  to  be  taken  to  a  sort  of 
chasm  ....  thinking  it  neither  for  the  good  of  the  child  itself 
nor  for  the  public  interest  that  it  should  be  brought  up.  Nor  was 
it  lawful  indeed  for  the  father  to  bring  up  his  children  after  his  own 
fancy ;  but  as  soon  as  they  were  seven  years  old,  they  were  enrolled 
in  certain  companies  and  classes,  where  they  all  lived  on  the  same 
order  and  discipline.  Reading  and  writing  they  gave  them  just  enough 
to  serve  their  turn;  their  chief  care  was  to  make  them  good  subjects, 
and  to  teach  them  to  endure  pain  and  to  conquer  in  battle.  After  they 
were  twelve  years  old  they  were  no  longer  allowed  to  wear  any  under 
garment ;  they  had  one  coat  to  serve  them  a  year.  They  lodged  to- 
gether in  little  bands  upon  beds  made  of  rushes  which  grew  by  the 
banks  of  the  river  Eurotas." 


286  APPENDIX  [286 

SOCRATES. 

For  references  see  former  outlines,  also  Card  Catalogue,  and 
Cyclopedias. 

1.  Socrates  as  a  man,  a  scholar,  a  teacher. 

2.  What  do  you  understand  by  the  Socratic  Method? 

3.  Why  did  Socrates  ask  direct  questions? 

4.  What  can   the  mind   discover  through   reflection   alone? 

5.  What  subjects  of  study  yield  themselves  to  the  Socratic  Method? 

6.  What  are  the  dangers  of  this  method? 

7.  Did  the  death  of  Socrates  advantage  or  disadvantage  Greece? 

Illustration  of  Socratic  Method. 

Socrates — Do  you  observe,  Meno,  that  I  am  not  teaching  the  boy 
anything  but  only  asking  him  questions ;  and  now  he  fancies  that  he 
knows  how  long  a  line  is  necessary  in  order  to  produce  a  figure  of 
eight  square  feet ;  does  he  not  ? 

Meno — Yes. 

Soc. — And  does  he  really  know? 

Meno — Certainly  not. 

Soc. — He  only  guesses  that  (because  the  square  is  double)  the  line 
is  doubled. 

Meno — True. 

Soc. — Observe  him  while  he  recalls  the  steps  in  regular  order.  (To 
the  boy.)  Tell  me,  boy,  do  you  assert  that  a  double  space  comes  from 
a  double  line?  Remember  that  I  am  not  speaking  of  an  oblong,  but  of 
a  square,  and  of  a  square  twice  the  size  of  this  one — that  is  to  say,  of 
eight  feet ;  and  I  want  to  know  whether  you  still  say  that  a  double 
square  comes  from  a  double  line? 

Boy — Yes. 

Soc. — But  does  not  this  line  become  doubled  if  we  add  another  such 
line  here? 

5ov— Certainly. 

Soc. — And  four  such  lines  will  make  a  space  containing  eight  feet? 

Boy — Yes. 

Soc. — Let  us  describe  such  a  figure :  is  not  that  what  you  would  say 
is  the  figure  of  eight  feet? 

Boy — Yes. 

Soc. — And  are  there  not  these  four  divisions  in  the  figure,  each  of 
which  is  equal  to  the  figure  of  four  feet? 

Boy — True. 

Soc. — And  is  not  that  four  times  four? 

Boy — Certainly. 

Soc. — And  four  times  is  not  double? 

Boy — No.  indeed. 


287]  APPENDIX  287 

Soc. — But  how  much? 

Boy — Four  times  as  much. 

Soc. — Therefore  the  double  line,  boy,  has  formed  a  space,  not  twice, 
but  four  times  as  much. 

Boy — True. 

Soc. — And  four  times  four  are  sixteen,  are  they  not? 

Boy — Yes. 

Soc. — What  line  would  give  you  a  space  of  eight  feet,  as  this  gives 
one  of  sixteen  feet?     Do  you  see? 

Boy—Yts. 

Soc. — And  the  space  of  four  feet  is  made  from  this  half  line? 

Boy — Yes. 

Soc. — Good ;  and  is  not  a  space  of  eight  feet  twice  the  size  of  this, 
and  half  the  size  of  the  other? 

Boy — Certainly. 

Soc. — Such  a  space,  then,  will  be  made  out  of  a  line  greater  than  this 
one,  and  less  than  that  one. 

Boy — Yes ;  that  is  what  I  think. 

Soc. — Very  good ;  I  like  to  hear  you  say  what  you  think.  And  now 
tell  me,  is  not  this  a  line  of  two  feet  and  that  of  four? 

Boy — Yes. 

Soc. — Then  the  line  which  forms  the  side  of  eight  feet  ought  to  be 
more  than  this  line  of  two  feet,  and  less  than  the  other  of  four  feet? 

Boy — It  ought. 

Soc. — Try  and  see  if  you  can  tell  me  how  much  it  will  be. 

Boy — Three  feet. 

Soc. — Then  if  we  add  a  half  to  this  line  of  two,  that  will  be  the  line 
of  three.  Here  are  two  and  there  is  one ;  and  on  the  other  side,  here 
are  two  also  and  there  is  one :  and  that  makes  the  figure  of  which  you 
speak? 

Boy— Yes. 

Soc. — But  if  there  are  three  feet  this  way  and  three  feet  that  way, 
the  whole  space  will  be  three  times  three  feet? 

Boy — That  is  evident. 

Soc. — And  how  much  are  three  times  three  feet? 

Boy — Nine. 

Soc. — And  how  much  is  the  double  of  four? 

Boy — Eight. 

Soc. — Then  the  figure  of  eight  is  not  made  out  of  a  line  of  three? 

Boy — No. 

Soc— But  from  what  line  ?     Tell  me  exactly ;  and  if  you  would  rather 
not  reckon,  try  and  show  me  the  line. 
Boy — Indeed,   Socrates,   I   do  not  know. 
Soc. — Do  you  see,  Meno,  what  advances  he  has  made  in  his  power 


288  APPENDIX  [288 

of  recollection  ?  He  did  not  know  at  first,  and  he  does  not  know  now, 
what  is  the  side  of  a  figure  of  eight  feet :  but  then  he  thought  that  he 
knew,  and  answered  confidently  as  if  he  knew,  and  had  no  difficulty; 
but  now  he  has  a  difficulty,  and  neither  knows  nor  fancies  that  he 
knows. 

Meno — True. 

Soc. — Is  he  not  better  off  in  knowing  his  ignorance? 

Meno — I  think  that  he  is. 

Soc. — If  we  have  made  him  doubt,  and  given  him  the  "  torpedo's 
shock,"  have  we  done  him  any  harm? 

Meno — I  think  not. 

Soc — We  have  certainly  done  something  that  may  assist  him  in  find- 
ing out  the  truth  of  the  matter ;  and  now  he  will  wish  to  remedy  his 
ignorance,  but  then  he  would  have  been  ready  to  tell  all  the  world  that 
the  double  space  should  have  a  double  side.  Dialogues  of  Plato,  Jowett's 
Translation,    i  :257-259. 


289]  APPENDIX  289 

PLATO  AND   XENOPHON. 

See  former  references ;  also  index  to  Am.  Jour,  of  Educa.,  card 
catalogue  and  cyclopedias ;  Plato's  Republic  and  Laws,  and  Xenophon's 
Cyropedeia  and  Economics ;  Plato's  Republic,  W.  L.  Bryan,  and  B. 
Bosanquet.     Education  of  the  Young  in  the  Republic  of  Plato  (trans.). 

Suggestions  and  Questions. 

A  study  of  the  early  life,  education  and  environment  of  Plato  and 
Xenophon  will  aid  in  a  better  understanding  of  their  writings. 

Plato  becomes  deeply  impressed  with  the  dangers  that  seem  to 
threaten  the  social  order  of  Greece  on  account  of  the  faulty  education 
of  c'nildren,  the  neglect  of  women  and  the  disorganization  of  the  state 
through  ignorant  individualism.  This  feeling  is  no  doubt  heightened 
by  the  teachings  and  tragic  death  of  Socrates.  He  gives  in  his  Re- 
public a  plan   for  overcoming   and   escaping  these   threatened   dangers. 

The  State  is  simply  the  individual  writ  large,  and  like  the  individual 
who  has  three  faculties,  the  intellect,  the  spirit  and  the  appetites,  the 
ideal  state  is  composed  of  three  classes  of  society  (i)  the  intelligent, 
i.  e.,  philosophers  and  sages ;  (2)  the  spirited,  i.  e.,  warriors  and 
soldiers;  (3)  the  money  makers,  i.  e.,  tradesmen  and  husbandmen.  As 
the  strength  of  the  individual  depends  upon  the  harmonious  develop- 
ment of  his  three  faculties,  so  the  well-being  of  the  State  depends  upon 
the  proper  relation  and  harmonious  action  of  these  three  classes  of  so- 
ciety. It  is  from  the  development  of  this  thought  that  Plato  gives 
voice  to  the  four  cardinal  virtues,  wisdom,  courage,  temperance  and 
justice. 

1.  Are  all  grades  of  society  provided  for  in  Plato's  Scheme? 

2.  How  is  this  ideal  state  to  be  brought  about? 

.3.  What  becomes  of  the  family?  Judging  from  Plato's  standpoint 
was  this  a  weakness  or  a  strength? 

4.  How  were  children  to  be  cared  for  and  educated? 

5.  What  were  the  steps  in  Plato's  scheme  of  education? 

6.  Point  out  some  of  the  more  noticeable  defects. 

7.  What  changed  views  did  Plato  reach  in  later  life,  as  seen  in  the 
"Laws?" 

8.  What  writings  of  Xenophon  are  of  special  interest  to  a  teacher, 
and  why? 

9.  Xenophon,  though  a  student  of  Socrates  and  educated  in  the 
literature  of  the  Greeks,  makes  no  provision  in  his  scheme  of  educa- 
tion for  intellectual  or  literary  pursuits.     Why? 

Compare  the  ideal  man  and  woman  of  Plato  and  of  Xenophon. 


290  APPENDIX  [ofjo 

ARISTOTLE.       384-322    B.    C. 

Sec  references  already  cited.  Aristotle  was  born  at  Stagira,  Thrace, 
of  noble  and  well  educated  parents.  After  the  death  of  his  father  his 
early  education  was  directed  by  Proxenus  of  Atarneus.  At  18  he  en- 
tered Plato's  Academy,  where  he  remained  an  apt  student  for  twenty 
years.  On  the  death  of  Plato  he  returned  to  Atarneus.  At  40  he  was 
entrusted  with  the  education  of  Alexander,  son  of  King  Philip  of 
Macedonia.  He  establi.shed  a  school  at  Mieza  which  he  called  Nym- 
phaeum. 

In  335  B.  C,  when  Alexander,  then  King  of  Macedonia,  prepared 
to  invade  Persia,  Aristotle  moved  to  Athens  and  established  a  school 
in  the  Lyceum,  or  Periclean  Gymnasium,  where  he  spent  his  twelve 
most  important  years  in  teaching  and  writing.  Banished  from 
Athens  he  retired  to  Chalcis  in  Euboea,  where  he  died  of  disease  of  the 
stomach  in  322  B.  C.  Among  his  principal  writings  are  his  works  on 
logic,  metaphysics,  ethics  and  politics. 

1.  How  did  Aristotle's  system  of  Education  as  seen  in  the  ideal 
State  (Politics:  chs.  4  &  5),  differ  from  that  given  by  Plato? 

2.  How  did  it  differ  from  the  usual  system  of  Athenian  education  in 
his  time? 

3.  Account  for  these  differences. 

4.  What  were  the  studies  pursued  by  the  different  classes  of  Greek 
Society?  How  did  these  studies  differ  in  number,  kind  and  efficiency 
from  the  studies  required  of  the  student  to-day? 

5.  What  requirements  in  the  Spartan  or  Athenian  education  impress 
you  as  worthy  of  being  ingrafted  into  our  own?  What  were  the  weak 
points  of  these  systems  of  education? 

6.  Do  you  consider  the  plans  of  education  as  proposed  by  Plato  and 
Aristotle  better  than  those  they  were  to  supersede?    Why? 

Extracts  from  Aristotle's  Writings. 

Politics,  Book  V ,  I.  "  Education  should  be  regulated  by  the  state  for 
the  ends  of  the  state,  and  each  citizen  should  understand  that  he  is 
not  his  own  master,  but  a  part  of  the  state.  What  we  have  to  aim 
at  is  the  happiness  of  each  citizen,  and  happiness  consists  in  a  com- 
plete activity  and  practice  of  virtue." 

"  Up  to  the  age  of  fourteen  it  is  not  desirable  to  make  children 
apply  themselves  to  study  of  any  kind  or  to  compulsory  bodily  exer- 
cise, for  fear  of  injuring  their  growth.  They  should  be  allowed  only 
so  much  movement  as  to  not  fall  into  sluggish  habits  of  life.  Their 
amusements  should  not  be  of  too  laborious  a  sort,  nor  yet  effeminate." 

Education,  in  the  strict  sense,  begins  at  seven  and  may  be  divided 
into  two  periods,  seven  to  fourteen,  and  fourteen  to  twenty-one. 

We  may  say  that  there  are  four  usual  subjects  of  education,  viz.: 


291  ]  APPENDIX  291 

reading,  writing,  gymnastics,  music,  and  further,  although  this  is  not 
universally  admitted,  the  art  of  design.     Book  V.  2. 

"  Care  for  the  body  must  precede  care  for  the  soul ;  next  to  care  for 
the  body  must  come  care  for  the  appetite ;  and  last  of  all  care  for  the 
intelligence.  We  train  the  appetite  for  the  sake  of  the  intelligence, 
and  the  body  for  the  sake  of  the  soul." 

"  No  citizen  has  a  right  to  consider  himself  as  belonging  to  himself ; 
but  all  ought  to  regard  themselves  as  belonging  to  the  State,  inas- 
much as  each  is  a  part  of  the  State,  and  care  for  the  part  naturally 
looks  to  care  for  the  whole." 

"  Since  the  whole  State  has  but  one  end,  it  is  plainly  necessary  that 
there  should  be  but  one  education  for  all  the  citizens." 

"  Let  no  one  ignorant  of  geometry  enter  here." — Motto  above  the 
door  of  Plato's  private  home. 


292  APPENDIX  [292 

ROMANS. 
References: 

Abbott.     The  Eternal  City.     Harper,  44:1    (Illustrated). 
Arnold,  Thomas.     History  of  Rome,  3  vols. 
Barnard,  H.     Higher  Education  in  Ancient  Rome.     Am.  Jour.  Educa., 

24:467,  514. 
Bancroft,  G.     Slavery  in  Rome.     North  Am.  Rev.,  39 :4I3. 
Becker,  W.  A.     Gallus,  pp.  182-198. 
Browning,  O.     Educational  Theories   (Kellogg),  p.  26. 
Chauvin,  M.  L.     Education  of  the  Romans.     Educa.  Rev.,  2 :4i4. 
Clarke,  Geo.     Education  of  Children  at  Rome. 
Compayre,  G.     History  of  Pedagogy,  p.  43. 
Davidson,  Thos.     History  of  Education,  p.   105. 
Donaldson,  J.     Ancient  Life  of  the  Romans.     Chaut.,  10:5,  134,  262. 
Draper,  John   W.     Intellectual   Development  of  Europe,  I. 
Duruy,  Victor.     History  of  Rome  and  of  the  Roman  People,  I. 
Dyer,  T.  R.     The  City  of  Rome. 
Gibbon,  E.     Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire. 
Gilman,  A.     Story  of  Rome. 
Granger,  P.     Moral  Life  of  the  Early  Romans.     Intern.  Jour,  of  Ethics, 

7:281. 
Guhl,  E.,  &  Koner,  W.     Life  of  Greeks  and  Romans. 
Hailman,  W.  N.     Lectures  on  History  of  Education,  p.  42. 
Hodgkin,    T.     The    Fall    of    the    Roman    Empire,    Its    lesson    for    us. 

Contemp.  73:51. 
Ihne,  W.     History  of  Rome,  IV. 
K^mp,   E.   L.     History  of  Education,   p.   84. 
Kiddle  &  Schem.     Cyclopedia  of  Education,  p.  744. 
Lawrence,  C.  E.     The  Roman  Capitol.     Harper,  44:570. 
Lanciani,  R.    Underground  Christian  Rome.    Atlan.  Mo.,  68  :i4. 

Notes  on  Ancient  and  Modern  Rome.     Cosmop.,  15:702. 
Ancient  Rome  in  the  Light  of  Recent  Discoveries. 
Gambling   and    Cheating    in    Ancient   Rome.     North    Am. 
Rev.,   155:97- 
Lossing,  B.  J.     Old  Romans  at  Home.     Harper,  46:66,  174. 
Laurie,  S.  S.     History   of   Early    Education.     School   Rev.,   3:i43,   211. 

Pre-Christian  Education,  p.  319,    (2d  ed.,  p.  3oO. 
Mivart,  S.  T.  G.    Roman  Society  and  Christianity.     Cosmop.,   17:102. 

Christianity  and  Roman  Paganism.  19th  Cent.,  34:822. 
Mommsen,  T.  History  of  Rome,  Abridged  for  Colleges  and  Schools. 
Monroe.  Paul.     Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education,  Greek  and 

Roman  Period. 
Painter,  F.  V.  N.     History  of  Education,  p.  65. 
Payne,  Jos.     History  of  Education,  2:22. 


293]  APPENDIX  293 

Pliny.     Letters  of  Younger  Pliny. 

Preston    &    Dodge.      Private    Life    in    Ancient    Rome.      Atlan.    Mo., 

69:597,  819. 
Plutarch.     Lives — Miscellanies   and    Essays. 
Quintilian.     Roman   Thoughts  on   Education.     Am.  Jour.   Educa.,    11: 

111-132;  also  Institutes  of  Oratory,  i. 
Rosenkranz.  J.  K.  F.     Philosophy  of  Education,  p.  229. 
Sallustius,  Crispus  Caius  Florus  and  Velleius  Paterculus  :  Trans,  by  J. 

S.  Watson. 
Schmid,  K.  A.     Geschichte  der  Erziehung,   i. 
Seeley,  L.     History  of  Education,  p.  74. 
Shoup,  W.  J.     History  and  Science  of  Education,  p.   156. 
Sonnen?chein.     Cyclopedia   of  Education. 
Stillman,   W.  J.     Old   Rome  and   New.     Atlan.   Mo.,  68:23. 
Taylor,  H.  O.     Ancient  Ideals,  I  and  II. 
Wells.  D.  A.     Taxation  in  Ancient  Rome.     Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  48:580. 

Suggestions  and  Questions. 

Lesson  one  will  include  the  education  of  Regal  and  Republican  Rome, 
752-727  B.  C. 

Lesson  two  and  following  will  include  Early  Imperial  Rome. 

Observe  in  your  study  the  suggestions  given  in  the  first  lesson.  Note 
especially  the  government,  religion,  chief  occupation,  ideals  of  Edu- 
cation and  means  of  obtaining  them,  branches  of  study,  types  of  man- 
hood and  womanhood  in  demand,  and  general  character  of  the  early 
Romans     . 

1.  What  changes  took  place  in  education  under  imperial  Rome? 

2.  Compare  Roman  with  Grecian  civilization.  Note  especially  the 
characteristic  differences  in  the  education. 

3.  If  the  following  extracts  from  the  Twelve  Tables  of  Roman  Law 
were  the  only  sources  of  information,  what  could  you  infer  of  Roman 
civilization  ? 

Extracts  from  the  Tioelve  Tables  of  Ronton  Law,  about  451  B.  C. 

"A  father  may  kill  at  its  birth  a  child  monstrously  deformed.  He 
shall  have  a  right  of  life  and  death  over  all  his  lawful  children,  and 
also  of  selling  them.  If  a  father  sells  his  child  thrice,  the  child  shall 
afterwards  be  free  from  him.  If  a  child  be  bom  to  him  within  ten 
months  after  his  death  it  is  his  lawful  child." 

"  Let  there  be  an  interval  of  two  feet  and  a  half  between  the  wall  of 
one  house  and  that  of  another." 

''  If  roadside  fields  are  left  without  enclosure,  any  one  may  drive 
cattle  over  them." 

"  If  any  one  takes  more  than  eight  and  a  third  per  cent,  interest  on  a 
loan,  he  shall  forfeit  four  times  the  amount." 


294  APPENDIX  [294 

"  Let  there  be  no  exception  of  law  in  favor  of  the  individuals. 
Let  there  be  the  same  law  to  the  obligor  and  the  obligee,  to  the  con- 
stant ally  and  to  him  who  has  been  restored  to  an  alliance  formerly 
violated.  If  a  judge  or  arbitrator  lawfully  appointed  take  a  bribe  for 
his  decision,  let  it  be  a  capital  offence.  Let  no  capital  punishment  be 
pronounced  against  a  Roman  Citizen  except  in  the  great  assembly  of 
the  people.  Let  inquisitors  of  murder  be  created  by  the  people  to  in- 
quire into  capital  crimes.  If  any  person  collect  nightly  meetings  in 
the  city,  let  it  be  a  capital  offence.  If  any  one  incite  an  enemy  against 
Rome,  or  betray,  or  deliver  up,  to  the  enemy  a  citizen,  let  it  be  a  cap- 
ital offence." 

"  Let  not  the  dead  be  buried  or  burned  within  the  city.  Abolish  ex- 
pense in  mourning  and  funeral  ceremonies  sacred  to  the  infernal  deities. 
Let  not  the  funeral  pile  be  made  of  carved  wood.  Let  there  be  no  more 
than  three  mourning  women,  and  ten  flute  players.  Let  not  the  women 
tear  their  hair,  nor  use  loud  bowlings.  Let  not  the  separate  bones  of  a 
dead  man  be  preserved  for  a  second  funeral,  excepting  in  the  case 
of  one  killed  in  battle,  or  in  an  enemies'  country.  Let  the  anoint- 
ing of  slaves  and  the  handing  around  of  liquors  be  abolished.  Let  no 
perfumed  liquors  be  sprinkled  on  the  deceased.  Let  no  long  garlands, 
nor  altars  covered  with  perfumes,  be  carried  before  the  corpse,  but 
if  the  deceased  has  gained  a  crown  of  honor  by  his  bravery,  let  the 
praise  of  himself  and  his  ancestors  be  celebrated,  and  let  it  be  placed 
before  the  corpse,  both  within  doors  and  when  it  is  carried  forth.  Let 
not  several  funerals  be  made  for  one  man,  nor  many  couches  be 
spread.  Let  no  gold  be  used,  but  if  any  one  has  had  his  teeth  fast- 
ened in  with  gold,  let  it  be  lawful  to  bury  or  burn  that  gold  with  the 
body.  Let  no  funeral  pile  nor  sepulchre  be  erected  within  sixty  feet 
of  another  person's  house  against  his  will.  Let  the  sepulchre  and  its 
vestibule  be  forever   incapable   of  becoming  private  property." 

"  Let  that  which  the  people  have  ordained  be  settled  law.  Let  there 
be  no  right  of  marriage  between  the  Patricians  and  the  Plebeians." 
For  a  somewhat  different  and  more  detailed  account,  see  Studies  in 
General  History,  by  Mary  D.  Sheldon,  pp.  145-146,  and  Source  Book 
of  the  History  of  Education,  by  Paul  Monroe,  pp.  334-344. 

4.  What  are  the  chief  educational  characteristics  of  the  Romans 
during  (a)  the  Primitive  Period,  (b)  during  early  Greek  influence, 
and  (c)  during  the  period  of  decadence? 


295]  APPENDIX  295 

IMPERIAL  ROME. 
References: 

Cicero.     On  Orators  and  Oratory. 

Dennis,  John.     Rome  of  To-Day  and  Yesterday,  p.  114. 
Davidson,  Thos.     Aristotle,  pp.  214-224. 
Granger,  F.  S.     Worship  of  the  Romans,  pp.  53-73,  134-136. 
Horace.     Satires  and  Epistles    (Kerkland),  pp.  241,  250,  258,  267,  272, 

279,  293,  3 10. 
Juvenal.     Satires. 

Lancimi,  R.     Ruins  and  Excavations  of  Ancient  Rome. 
Middleton.  T.  H.     Ancient  Rome  in  1885,  p.  181. 

The  Romans  of  Ancient  Rome,  1:289-329;  2:40-81, 
104,  113,  158,  263,  300,  314,  352. 
Monroe,  Paul.     Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education. 
Pellison,  H.     Roman  Life  in  Pliny's  Time,  pp.  19-57,  151-185,  295. 
Plutarch     Morals    (Goodwin),    1:3    (Training   Children). 

A  Discussion  on  Children.     Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  11 :99. 
Persius.    Satires,  pp.  VII-XIV.  75.  104,   118    (edited  by  B.  L.  Gilder- 

sle;ve),    1875. 
Preston  k  Dodge.     The  Private  Life  of  the  Romans,  pp.  135,  157,  159. 
Quintiliai.     Sayings    of.     Am.    Jour.    Educa.,   8:39,   42,    74,    75;    13:81, 

85;  10:126-7.    188.    195. 
Quintilian     Institutes  of  Oratory. 

Ramsey,  V.  M.     Childhood  of  Horace.     Macmil.,  76:450. 
Ramsey    ii    Lanpinni.     Manual    of    Roman    Antiquities,    pp.    109,    165, 

285,364,  475- 
Shumway,  E.  S.     A  Day  in  Ancient  Rome. 
See  also  tie  references  on  the  former  outline. 

Questions  and   Suggestions. 

1.  At  v\liat  period  did  Rome  give  forth  expressions  of  its  highest 
civilizatioi? 

2.  In  \viat  way  has  this  civilization  been  preserved? 

3.  Wha  Roman  writers  are  especially  interesting  to  the  student  of 
pedagogy' 

4.  Give  their  leading  views  on  education  and  compare  these  views 
with  the  expressions  of  the  Greeks  covering  similar  subjects. 

5.  Notie  the  subjects  of  study,  their  order  of  presentation,  and  the 
amount  ncluded  in  each,  also  schools  and  teachers,  and  the  subjects 
which  rceived  the  greatest  attention. 

6.  Corpare  the  ideas  of  Quintilian  and  Plutarch  as  seen  in  their 
writings  on  education. 

7.  Ho:  do  these  views  compare  with  the  present  thought  and  practice? 

8.  Wht  is  the  main  criticism  of  the  ideals  of  education  advanced 
by  these  v/riters  ? 


2Cj6 


APPENDIX 


[296 


Extracts  from  Roman  Writers. 

■'A  man  must  augment  his  substance,  and  he  is  deserving  of  praise 
and  full  of  divine  spirit  whose  account  books  at  his  death  show  that 
he  has  gained  more  than  he  has  inherited."  "  BeHeve  me,  those 
statues  from  Syracuse  were  brought  into  this  city  with  hostile  effect. 
I  already  hear  too,  many  commending  and  admiring  the  decorations 
of  Athens  and  Corinth,  and  ridiculmg  the  earthen  images  of  our 
Roman  Gods  that  stand  on  the  fronts  of  their  temples." — Cato. 

'■  If  they  disseminate  their  literature  among  us,  it  will  destroy  every- 
thing ;  but,  still  worse,  if  they  send  their  doctors  among  us,  for  they 
have  bound  themselves  by  a  solemn  oath  to  kill  the  barbarians  and  the 
Romans."     Id. 

"  Every  duty  which  tends  to  preserve  human  relations  and  human 
society  must  be  assigned  a  higher  place  than  any  which  stop  shcrt  with 
knowledge  and  science."     Cicero. 

'■  What  greater  service  can  we  of  to-day  render  the  Republic  than  to 
instruct  and  train  the  young."     Id. 

"  I  pass  to  the  pleasure  of  oratorical  eloquence,  the  delight  of  which 
one  enjoys  not  at  any  one  moment,  but  almost  every  day  atd  every 
hour."     Tacitus. 

"  It  is  my  desire  that  all  children  whatsoever  may  partale  of  the 
benefits  of  education  alike ;  but  if  any  person,  by  reason  of  th?  narrow- 
ness of  their  estates,  cannot  make  use  of  my  precepts,  let  them  not 
blame  me  that  give  them,  but  Fortune,  which  disableth  thtm,  from 
making  the  advantage  by  them  they  otherwise  might."     Plutsrch. 

"  The  civil  man,  and  he  who  is  truly  wise,  who  does  not  da^ote  him- 
self to  idle  disputes,  but  to  the  administration  of  the  comnonwealth 
(from  which  those  folks  who  are  called  philosophers  havt  farthest 
withdrawn  themselves),  will  be  glad  to  employ  every  availabe  orator- 
ical means  to  reach  his  ends,  having  previously  settled  in  his  twn  mind 
v/hat  ends  are  honorable."     Quintilian. 


297]  APPENDIX  297 

CHURCH  FATHERS  AND  CHRISTIAN  SCHOOLS. 

References: 

Carr,  Rev.  A.     The  Church  and  the  Roman  Empire. 

Compayre,  G.     History  of  Pedagogy,  pp.  61-70. 

Davidson,  Thos.     History  of  Education,  p.  121. 

Draper,  J.  W.     Intellectual  Development  of  Europe,  i  :266  ff. 

Earliest  Christian  Schools.     Origen  at  Alexandria,  St. 
Benedict  and   his   rule.     Am.   Jour.    Educa.,  24:515- 

544- 
Erdmann,  J.   E.     History  of   Philosophy    (Ancient   and   Mediaeval),  p. 

253  ff. 
Farrar,  F.  W.     Lives  of  the  Fathers.     Vol.   i.     (Catacombs,  i  :io.) 
Ignatius,   St.      Primitive  Conception  of  the  Christian   Religion.      Brit 

Qr.,  1876,  p.  161. 
Jerome,   St.     Letter  to  Laeta.     Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  5 :594 ;  also  in   Rep. 

U.  S.  Comr.  Educa.  on  Female  Education,  Misc.  Pubs.,  1867,  pp. 

371-376. 
Kemp,  E.  L.     History  of  Education,  p.  106. 
Lea,  H.  C.     History  of  Sacerdotal  Celibacy.     Chs.  i   and  2. 
Merivale,  Chas.     Conversion  of  the  Northern  Nations,  pp.  11-30,  31-47, 

48-65,  150-170. 
Menzies,  Allan.     The   Ante-Nicene   Fathers,   vol.  9    (Clement,  9:227)  ; 

also  Origen.  Letter  and  Commentaries,  pp.  295,  297,  413. 
Painter,  F.  V.  N.     History  of  Education,  p.  80. 
Pfleiderer,  O.     Influence  of  Paul  on  Christianity,  pp.  201,  238. 
Plummer,  A.     Church  of  the  Early  Fathers. 
Schaff,    P.     History   of  the   Apostolic   Church :    The   family,   marriage 

and  celibacy,  pp.  443-468,  Peter  in  Rome,  362-377. 
Seeley,  L.     History  of  Education,  p.  loi. 
Shedd,  VV.  C.  T.     History  of  Christian  Doctrine,  i  :62-68. 
Ueberweg,    F.     History   of    Philosophy    (Ancient   and   Mediaeval),    pp. 

274-335- 
Westcott,  B.  F.     Origen  and  the  Beginnings  of  Christian  Philosophy. 

Contemp.,  35:324-  489- 
Henry.  C.  S.     History  of  Philosophy,   1:186. 

(See  also  Histories  and  Cyclopedias  of  Education.) 

Thoughts  for  Consideration. 
(a)  The  New  Spirit  of  Christianity  and  its  progress;  (b)  The 
great  change  in  educational  ideas,  (c)  Intellectual  poverty  of  the 
early  Christian  centuries  and  its  cause;  (d)  The  division  of  the 
Church  Fathers  into  two  classes,  those  opposed  to  the  study  of  pagan 
literature  and  religion,  as  Tertullian,  St.  Augustine  and  St.  Jerome; 
and  those   favoring  such  study,  as   St.   Basil,   Clement  and   Origen  of 


298  APPENDIX  [298 

Alexandria,  and  others ;    (e)   The  cause  and  outcome  of  this  division ; 
(f)   What  dangers  did  the  pagan  schools  offer  to  Christian  education? 

"  It  is  better  by  far  to  be  ignorant  than  to  know  what  you  ought  not 
to  know,  since  you  know  what  you  ought  and  need  to  know."  "  Thy 
faith,"  says  Luke  (XVIII,  42),  hath  saved  thee,"  not  inquiry  into 
scripture.  Curiosity  yields  to  faith ;  love  of  glory  to  the  hope  of  sal- 
vation. To  know  nothing  opposed  to  our  law  is  to  know  all." 
"  What  use  is  it  to  talk  with  men  who  themselves  confess  that  they 
have  hitherto  been  seeking?  If  indeed  they  have  hitherto  been  seek- 
ing, then  hitherto  they  have  found  naught." — Tertullian. 

"  The  choice  lies  between  two  alternatives,  a  liberal  education  which 
you  may  get  by  sending  your  children  to  school  (public),  or  the  sal- 
vation of  their  souls,  which  they  secure  by  going  to  the  monks.  Which 
is  to  gain  the  day,  science  or  the  soul?"  If  you  can  unite  both  advant- 
ages, do  so  by  all  means,  but  if  not,  choose  the  most  precious." — 
St.  ChrysostoBi. 

"  I  am  anxious  that  you  should  devote  all  your  strength  to  Chris- 
tianity, and  in  order  to  do  it  I  wish  you  to  extract  from  the  philosophy 
of  the  Greeks  what  may  serve  as  a  course  of  study  or  preparation 
for  Christianit}',  and  from  Geometry  and  Astronomy  what  will  serve 
to  explain  the  sacred  Scriptures,  in  order  that  all  that  the  sons  of 
philosophers  are  wont  to  say  about  geometry  and  music,  grammar, 
rhetoric  and  astronomy,  as  fellow-helpers  to  philosophy,  may  we  not 
say  of  philosophy  itself  in   relation   to   Christianity." — Origen. 

"  We  may  also  see  in  their  own  houses,  shoe-makers,  wool-weavers, 
fullers,  and  the  most  illiterate  and  rustic  men,  who  dare  not  say  any- 
thing in  the  presence  of  more  elderly  and  wiser  fathers  of  families ; 
but  when  they  meet  with  children  apart  from  their  parents,  and 
certain  stupid  women  with  them,  then  they  discuss  something  of  a 
wonderful  nature ;  such  as,  it  is  not  proper  to  pay  attention  to  par- 
ents or  preceptors,  but  that  they  should  be  persuaded  by  them.  For, 
say  they,  your  parents  and  preceptors  are  delirious  and  stupid,  and 
neither  know  what  is  truly  good  nor  are  able  to  effect  it,  being  pos- 
sessed of  trifles  of  an  unusual  nature;  they  add,  that  they  alone  know 
how  it  is  proper  to  live,  and  that  if  children  are  persuaded  by  them, 
they  will  be  blessed  and  also  the  family  to  which  they  belong." — Argu- 
ments of  Celsus  vs.  the  Christians. 

"I  was  fasting  just  before  I  meant  to  read  Cicero.  After  many 
night-long  vigils,  after  the  tears  which  the  recollection  of  my  past  sins 
drew  from  my  very  heart,  I  used  to  take  up  my  Plautus.  If,  when  I 
returned  to  myself,  I  began  to  read  the  Prophets,  their  rude  speech 
made  me  shudder ;  and  because  I  did  not  see  the  light  with  my  blind 
eyes,  I  thought  it  was  not  the  fault  of  my  eyes,  but  of  the  sun.  While 
the  old  serpent  was  thus  mocking  me,  about  the  middle  of  Lent  a  fever, 


299]  APPENDIX  299 

of  which  the  seeds  were  in  me,  seized  on  my  exhausted  frame ;  and, 
without  any  respite  (which  sounds  incredible),  so  fed  on  my  luckless 
limbs  that  my  skin  scarcely  held  to  my  bones.  Meanwhile,  my  funeral 
was  being  prepared,  and  the  vital  heat  of  my  soul  barely  palpitated  in 
the  slight  warmth  of  my  breast,  while  all  my  body  was  growing  cold ; 
when  suddenly  I  was  rapt  in  the  spirit  before  the  tribunal  of  the  Judge, 
where  there  was  such  a  flood,  of  light,  and  such  resplendence  from  the 
glory  of  the  angel  spectators,  that,  prostrate  on  the  earth,  I  did  not 
dare  to  uplift  my  eyes.  Asked  about  my  state,  I  answered  that  I  was 
a  Christian.  '  Thou  liest,'  answered  He;  'thou  art  a  Ciceronian,  not  a 
Christian;  for  where  thy  treasure  is,  there  is  thy  heart.'  Instantly  I 
became  dumb,  and,  amid  blows  (for  He  had  ordered  me  to  be  scourged), 
I  was  tortured  still  more  by  the  fire  of  conscience,  thinking  over  that 
verse,  'In  hell  who  shall  confess  to  Thee?'  Yet  I  began  to  cry,  and, 
wailing  aloud,  to  say,  '  Pity  me,  O  Lord,  pity  me,'  amid  the  sounds  of 
the  lash.  At  length  they  who  stood  by,  casting  themselves  before  the 
knees  of  the  Judge,  prayed  Him  to  pardon  my  youth,  and  to  grant  a 
place  for  repentance  of  my  error,  but  to  inflict  torture  on  me  afterwards 
if  at  any  time  I  read  the  books  of  Gentile  literature.  I  who,  in  these 
dread  straits,  would  have  been  willing  to  promise  even  greater  things, 
began  to  swear,  and  call  on  His  name,  and  say,  '  O  Lord,  if  I  ever 
possess  secular  manuscripts,  if  I  ever  read  them,  I  have  denied  Thee.' 
Dismissed  after  having  taken  this  oath,  I  returned  to  the  upper  air,  and, 
to  the  astonishment  of  all,  opened  my  eyes  bathed  with  a  flood  of  tears, 
that  my  anguish  convinced  even  the  incredulous.  Indeed,  this  had  been 
no  slumber  nor  vain  dream,  by  which  we  are  often  deceived.  That 
tribunal  before  which  I  lay,  that  grim  judgment  which  I  feared,  is  my 
vvitness ;  may  I  never  again  be  thus  brought  to  trial !  I  confess  that 
my  shoulders  were  dark  with  welts ;  that,  after  awaking,  I  felt  the 
blows,  and  that  thenceforth  I  read  Divine  books  with  a  zeal  more 
ardent  than  I  had  read  human  books  before."  St.  Jerome,  Ep.  xxii.  30. 
Farrar's  Lives  of  the  Fathers,  2:183-184. 

Prominent  names  among  the  early  Church  Fathers  and  Teachers. 

St.  Ambrose,  Apollinaris,  St.  Athanasius,  St.  Augustine,  St.  Basil, 
St.  John  Chrysostom,  Clement  of  Alexandria,  St.  Cyprian,  Dionysius 
of  Alexandria,  St.  Gregory  of  Nazianzus,  St.  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  St 
Ignatius  of  Antioch,  St.  Jerome,  St.  Justin,  St.  Martin  of  Tours,  Mon- 
tanus  of  Phrygia,  Origen  of  Alexandria,  St.  Polycarp,  TertulHan,  Cas- 
siodorus.  St.  Benedict,  Cassianus  of  Marseilles,  Boethius,  Theodore  of 
Mopsuestia,  Theodore  of  Tarsus. 

What  were  their  views  concerning  education,  pagan  literature,  and 
celibacy  of  priesthood? 


300  APPENDIX  [300 

ASCETICISM  AND  MONASTICISM. 

Cody.  E.  G.     Daily  Life  in  Modern  Monastery.     19th  Cent.,  16:517. 

Compayre,  G.     History  of  Pedagogy,  pp.  61-70. 

Farrar,    F.    W.     Lives    of    the    Fathers, — Monasticism    and    asceticism, 
2:159. 

Gieseler,    J.    K.    L.     Ecclesiastical    History, — History    of    Monachism, 
1 :397- 

Jessopp,  Aug.     Daily  Life  in  a  Mediasval  Monastery.     19th  Cent.,  15:100. 

Lea,  H.  C.     History  of  Sacerdotal  Celibacy,  Ch.  2. 

Lecky.  W.  E.  H.     History  of  European  Morals,  2:164,  188,  194,  338,  356. 

McClintock  &  Strong.     Biblical,  Theol.  and  Eccles.  Encyc. 

Milman,   H.   H.      History  of   Christianity,   vol.   3    (see   contents). 
History  of  Latin  Christianity,  vol.  5,  ch.  9. 

Kemp,  E.  L.     History  of  Education,  p.   109. 

Painter,  F.  V.  N.     History  of  Education,  pp.  93,  99. 

Plummer,  A.     The  Church  of  the  Early  Fathers. 

Robertson,  J.  M.     A  Short  History  of  Christianity,  p.   191   fT. 

St.  Francis  and  the  Franciscans ;  Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  24 :393.     St.  Dom- 
inic and  the  Dominicans;  A.m.  Jour.  Educa.,  24:375.     (See  Early 
Christian  Schools  and  Teachers ;  Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  24 :2>2>7,  374- 
(i)   What  was  the  form,  nature  and  purpose  of  the  early  Christian 

schools?     (2)   How  was  ancient  learning  preserved?     (3)   What  criti- 
cism may  be  justly  offered  concerning  education  of  that  period?     (4) 

Account  for  the  ascetic  tendency  of  the  early   Church   Fathers.     (5) 

What  was  the  result  of  asceticism  on  education  and  religious  progress? 


301]  APPENDIX  301 

EARLY  SCHOOLS  OF  IRELAND  AND  BRITAIN. 

References: 

Asser,  John.     Alfred  the  Great,  Six  Old  English  Chronicles,  pp.  43-86, 
154,  161. 

St.  Germans,  Six  Old  English  Chronicles,  pp.  397-409. 

St.   Patrick,  Six  Old  English  Chronicles,  pp.  400-412. 

Druids   and   Religion,    Six   Old   English   Chronicles,  pp. 

429-434- 
Alfred  the  Great.     Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  10:323;  27:822. 
Ancient   Church   of   Ireland.     Dub.    Univ.,    17:407,   Apr., 
1841. 
Bede.     Ecclesiastical  Hist,  of  England,  pp.  IX,  26,  55,  211. 

Conversion  of  England  to  Christianity.     Blackwood,   102 :702. 
Creasy,   Edward.     History  of  England,   i  -.126,   119,  441. 
Cutts,  Rev.  Edw.  L.     Scenes  and  Characters  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

(Secular  Clergy  of  Middle  Ages,  195;  Our  Lady 
of  Walsingham  and  St.  Thomas  of  Canter- 
bury, 176- ;  Pilgrims,  157;  Hermits,  93-;  Mon- 
astery, 176- ;  Origin  of  Monachism,  i;  Orders: 
Benedictine,  6-;  Augustine,  18- ;  Military,  26-; 
Friars,  36-). 
Character  of  Ancient  Irish.  Dub.  Univ.,  20: 
422,  Oct.,  1842. 
Florence    of    Worcester's    Chronicle.       Alfred    the    Great,    Transl.    by 

Forrester,  pp.  53-86. 
Floyd,  J.  A.     The  Church  in  Britain  before  the  Coming  of  St.  Augus- 
tine.    Cath.  World,  66:173. 
Green,  J.  R.     History  of  the  English  People,  i  :70. 
Haureau,  Bart.     The  Irish  of  the  Past.     North  Am.  Rev.,  94:125. 
Hallam,  H.     State  of  Europe  during  Middle  Ages. 
Hughes,  Thos.     Alfred  the  Great,  chs.  Ill,  IV. 
Ingulfs  Chronicles  of  Abbey  of  Croyland,  p.  80. 

Jonas  the  Monk.     Life  of  St.  Columba.     Penn.  Univ.  Transl.  and  re- 
prints, vol.  2,  No.  7,  p.  2. 
Knight,   Chas.     History  of  England,   1:91-107;   129. 

Laws  of  the  Ancient  Irish.     Dub.  Univ.,  67  :3,  Jan.  1866. 
Laurie,  S.  S.     Rise  and  Constitution  of  Universities,  pp.  54,  236. 
Leach,  A.  F.     Our  Oldest  School.     Fortn.  Rev.,  52:638-650. 
Morris.     Irish   Character.     Contemp.,  20:104. 

Morley,  J.     An  attempt  towards  a  history  of  English  literature,  i  :8. 
Mullinger,  J.  B.     Schools  of  Charles  the  Great,  p.  171. 
Payne,  Jos.     History  of  Education,  2 :29-34. 
Pauli.  R.     Life  of  Alfred  the  Great,  p.  164  flf. 


302  APPENDIX  [302 

Pierson,  C.  N.     The  Early  Middle  Ages  of  England,  109. 

Putnam,  G.  H.  Books  and  their  Makers  in  the  Middle  Ages,  Intro- 
duction ;  Columba,  45 :  Monks  of  England,  90 ;  Scriptorium,  61 ; 
Early  Monastic  Schools,  106-122;  Exchange  of  Books,  133;  Books 
in  Early  Universities,  178. 

Stanton,  H.     The  Great  Schools  of  England,  XIV-XXI. 

West,  A.  F.     Alcuin  and  the  Rise  of  Christian  Schools,  p.  28  ff. 
See  also  the  Histories  of  Education. 

1.  Account  for  the  growth  and  influence  of  the  early  Christian  church 
in  Ireland  and  Britain. 

2.  What  encouragement  did  King  Alfred  offer  to  education? 

3.  What  means  did  he  use  in  attaining  his  object? 

4.  What  were  the  principal  subjects  of  study,  and  the  nature  and 
condition  of  the  schools? 

5.  In  Alfred's  time  what  was  the  Ideal  Man,  the  Ideal  Woman? 

"  In  the  year  of  our  Lx)rd's  Incarnation  849  was  born  Alfred,  King 
of  the  Anglo-Saxons.  The  mother  of  Alfred  was  named  Osburga,  a 
religious  woman,  noble  by  birth  and  by  nature  ...  In  the  year  of 
our  Lord's  Incarnation  858  King  Ethelwulf  sent  his  son  Alfred  above 
named  to  Rome  with  an  honorable  escort,  both  of  nobles  and  of  com- 
moners. Pope  Leo  IV.  at  the  time  presided  over  the  Apostolic  See, 
and  he  anointed  for  the  King  the  aforesaid  Alfred  and  adopted  him  as 
his  spiritual  son  .  .  .  He  (Alfred)  was  loved  by  his  father  and 
mother  and  even  by  all  the  people  above  all  his  brothers,  and  was 
educated  altogether  at  the  court  of  the  King.  As  he  advanced  through 
the  years  of  his  infancy  and  youth,  his  form  appeared  more  comely 
than  that  of  his  brothers ;  in  look,  in  speech  and  in  manners  he  was 
more  graceful  than  they.  His  noble  nature  implanted  in  him  from 
his  cradle  a  love  of  wisdom,  but  with  shame  be  it  spoken,  by  the  un- 
worthy neglect  of  his  parents  and  nurses,  he  remained  illiterate  even 
till  he  was  twelve  years  old,  or  more,  but  he  listened  with  serious  at- 
tention to  the  Saxon  poems  which  he  often  heard  recited  and  easily 
retained  them  in  docile  memory.  He  was  a  zealous  practicer  of  hunt- 
ing in  all  its  branches,  and  hunted  with  great  assiduity  and  success." 
From  Assar's  Life  of  Alfred  the  Great. 


303]  AFFENDIX  303 

CHARLEMAGNE  AND  THE  REVIVAL  OF  LEARNING. 

References: 

Azarias,    Brother.     The    Christian    Schools.     (A    criticism    of    West's 

Alcuin.)     Educa.   Rev.,  5:499. 
Bryce,  Jas.     Holy  Roman  Empire,  pp.  50-75. 
Davidson,  Thos.     The  Seven  Liberal  Arts.     Educa.   Rev.,  2 1467 ;   also 

History  of  Education,  p.  149. 
Duruy,  Victor.     History  of  Middle  Ages,  p.  135. 
Eginhard.     Life  of  Charlemagne,  pp.  51,  61,  66. 

Educational    Institutions    under    Charlemagne.     Am.    Jour. 
Educa.,  20:212,  447;  24:XLIV. 
Emerton,  E.     Introduction  to  the  Middle  Ages,  pp.  225-232. 
Gibbon,  Ed.     Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  5 :44-48. 
Guizot,  F.  P.  G.     History  of  Civilization,  1:82-125;  3:30-74;   144-188. 
Hallam,  H.     Introduction  to  Literature  of  Europe,   i  :25-39. 
Henderson,  E.  F.     Historical  Documents  of  Middle  Ages,  pp.  189-201, 

267-314. 
Henderson,  E.  F.     (Review.)     Household  of  Charlemagne.     North  Am. 
Rev.,  81  :ii2. 
James'  History  of  Charlemagne.  Blackv^rood  32 :790-8o2. 
Kemp,  E.  L.     History  of  Education,  p.   122. 
Kiddle  &  Schem.     Cyclopedia  of  Education,  p.   122. 
Laurie,  S.  S.     Rise  and  Constitution  of  Universities,  pp.  39-77. 
Mombert,  J.  I.     History  of  Charles  the  Great,  p.  241. 
Mullinger,  J.  B.     History  of  Modern  Europe,  vol.  i  :30-33,  and  Schools 

of  Charles  the  Great. 
Schmid,  K.  A.     Geschichte  der  Erziehung,  II,  Pt.  i. 
West,  A.  F.     Alcuin  and  the  Rise  of  Christian  Schools,  Chs.  I  and  3. 
White,  Jas.     Eighteen  Christian  Centuries,  pp.  171-216. 

(See  also  the  various  Histories  of  Education.) 

1.  What  is  meant  by  the  Seven  Liberal  Arts? 

2.  How  did  the  phrase  originate,  and  what  subjects  were  included? 

3.  Why  was  Charlemagne  interested  in  education? 

4.  What  were  the  subjects  and  methods  of  study  in  Charlemagne's 
school ? 

5.  What  were  the  principal  difficulties  in  the  way  of  progress? 

Letters  of  Charlemagne  to  the  Lectors  of  the  Churches. 

"  The  indolence  of  our  ancestors  has  brought  the  study  of  let- 
ters to  almost  nothing.  We  are  trying  to  revive  it,  and  we  invite 
all  those  whom  we  can  influence  by  our  example  to  urge  the  utmost 
study  of  the  holy  scriptures.  All  the  books  of  the  old  and  new  testa- 
ments  were   disfigured   by   the   awkward   stupidity   of   copyists.     With 


304  APPENDIX  [304 

the  help  of  God,  who  helps  us  in  all  things,  we  have  had  their  mis- 
takes entirely  corrected.  Inspired  by  the  example  of  Pepin  our  father 
who  introduced  into  all  the  Gallic  churches  the  fine  traditions  of  the 
Roman  chant,  we  are  engaged  with  like  anxiety  to  procure  for  them 
a  collection  of  the  most  important  reading  (Lessons).  Those  who 
have  attempted  to  read  one  of  them  for  a  night  service  have  lest  their 
pains  in  spite  of  their  best  intentions.  The  lessons  have  been 
written  down  without  the  names  of  the  authors,  and  have  been  scribbled 
down  full  of  mistakes.  We  cannot  bear  that  during  our  reign  people 
should  hear  in  the  midst  of  the  lessons  of  the  sacred  office  such  jar- 
ring mistakes,  and  we  have  given  into  the  charge  of  our  friend  Paul, 
the  Deacon,  to  put  the  finishing  touches  to  the  work." 


305]  APPENDIX  305 

UNIVERSITIES   OF  THE   MIDDLE  AGES. 
References : 
Bush,  G.  G.     Origin  of  the  First  German   University.     Educa.,  4:384, 

534- 
Brodrick,    G.    C.      History    of    the    University    of    Oxford,    pp.    1-43. 

Macmillan,  56:150. 
Compayre,  G.     Abelard  and  the  Rise  of  the  Universities,  p.  46. 
Dollinger,  J.  J.   I.   von.      Universities,   Past  and    Present.      Am.   Jour. 

Educa.,  20:72,7 ■ 
University  of  Paris.     Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  24: 
403,  745- 
Duruy.    V.     History   of   the    Middle   Ages    (Transl.    by    Whiting),    pp. 

Emerton,  E.     Mediaeval  Europe :  The  Rise  of  Universities,  p.  465. 
Hallam,  H.     Introduction  to  Literature  of  Europe :  Universities,  i  :35  ff. 
Middle    Ages,    .    .    .    Universities,   etc.,    3 :396-408. 
History     of     University     College,     Oxford.      Am.     Jour. 
Educa.,  27:826,  827,  831. 
Holland,  F.  E.     Origin  of  Oxford  University.     Acad.  2iZ'-Z7^\  34=40. 
Howard,   G.    E.     Evolution   of  the   University,   p.   3. 
Kemp,  E.  L.     History  of  Education,  p.  138. 
Kiddle  &  Schem.     Cyclopedia  of  Education,  p.  831. 
Kirkpatrick,    Edw^.     Historical    Development    of    Superior    Instruction. 

Am.  Jour.  Educa..  24:453;  see  also  p.  371. 
Lang,  Andrew.     Oxford,  Chapters   i   and  2. 
Laurie.  S.  S.     Rise  and  Constitution  of  Universities,  p.  91. 

Mediaeval    Student.     Pennsylvania    University,    Transla- 
tions and  reprints  from  the  original  sources  of  Euro- 
pean History,  vol.  2,  No.  3. 
Mullinger,  J.  B.     History  of  the  University  of  Cambridge,  pp.  1-31. 

The    University    of    Cambridge    from    the    earliest 
times,  pp.  49,   126-131. 
Payne  and  others.     Early  History  of  Universities.     Acad.,  31 :27,  43,  61, 
Newman,  J.  H.     The  University  of  Books,  Affairs  and  Living  Teachers. 

Am.  Jour.  Educa..  24  :XVII. 
Raumer,   K.   G.   von.      Universities   in  the   i6th   Century.      Am.   Jour. 

Educa.,  5:535- 
Savigny,  F.  E.     Universities  of  the  Middle  Ages.     Am.  Jour.  Educa., 

22  :273. 
Sonnenschein.     Cyclopedia  of  Education,  p.  456. 
Stedman,  A.  M.  M.     Oxford,  its  life  and  schools,  Ch.  i. 

University  of  Tiibingen.     Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  9:57. 
Tappan,  H.  P.     Progress  of  educational  development  in  Europe.     Am, 

Jour.  Educa.,  i  :246-258. 
Tappan,  H.  P.     Universities.     North  Am.  Rev..  27 :67. 


3o6  APPENDIX  [306 

Suggestions  and  Questions. 

It  is  not  easy  to  fix  the  date  of  the  beginning  of  the  universities. 
Many  of  them  seem  to  have  been  long  in  existence  before  obtaining 
any  patent  or  charter  from  King  or  Pope  to  give  them  legal  sanction. 
Laurie  says,  that  the  Church  did  not  found  universities  any  more 
than  it  founded  the  order  of  chivalry.  They  were  founded  by  con- 
currence (not  wholly  fortuitous)  of  able  men  who  had  something 
they  wished  to  teach,  and  of  youths-  who  desired  to  learn.  None  the 
less  were  the  acquiescence  and  protection  of  the  Church  and  State 
necessary  in  those  days  for  the  fostering  of  those  infant  seminaries. 

The  many  important  Roman-Hellenic  schools  like  those  at  Rome, 
Athens,  Byzantium,  Byretus,  Alexandria,  Rheims,  etc.,  were  not  known 
as  universities.     This  term  is  of  later  origin. 

1.  In  the  Middle  Ages,  what  authority  takes  the  place  of  the  State 
in  directing  education? 

2.  What  is  the  prevailing  ideal  ?  How  does  it  compare  with  the 
Greek  ideal? 

3.  What  was  the  condition  of  physical,  intellectual  and  moral 
education  ? 

4.  What  was  the  principal  factor  in  preventing  education  from 
wholly  lapsing? 

5.  How  did  the  following  schools  differ:  Monastic,  Cathedral,  Pala- 
tine, Village  or  City? 

6.  Describe  the  Mediaeval  University,  including  government,  relation 
to  State  and  Church,  instructors,  students,  subjects  of  study,  length  of 
course,  influence  upon  education  and  society,  and  means  of  support. 

List  of  Some  of  the  More  Important  Mediaeval  Universities. 

Italy:  Salerno  (iioo),  unchartered,  medicine;  Bologna  (1119),  un- 
chartered, law;  Modena  (1116),  unchartered,  law;  Naples  (1224),  char- 
tered by  Frederick  II,  four  faculties. 

France:  Paris  (1200),  unchartered,  four  faculties;  Toulouse  (1200), 
chartered  by  Pope  Gregory  IX,  four  faculties;  Montpelier  (1196),  char- 
tered by  Pope  Nicholas  IV  (1289). 

England:  Oxford  (1140)  ;  Cambridge  (1109?)  ;  the  former  charter 
by  John  I  (1201),  the  latter  by  Henry  III  (1231)  ;  both  schools  were 
the  outgrowth  of  earlier  monastic  schools;  dates  of  founding  involved 
in  doubt. 

Spain:  Salamanca  (1243),  chartered  by  Ferdinand  III,  King  of  Cas- 
tile; Valencia  (1245),  chartered  by  James  I,  King  of  Aragon ;  Seville 
(1254),  chartered  by  Alonzo  X,  King  of  Castile. 

Germany  and  Austria:  Prague  (1348),  chartered  by  Pope  Clement 
VI  and  Charles  IV;  Vienna  (1365),  chartered  by  Rodolphus  IV  and 
Pope  Urban  V;  Cologne  (1388),  chartered  by  Pope  Urban  VI. 

For  chronological  table  of  the  earlier  universities,  see  Am.  Jour. 
Educa.,  24:XV,  and  Abelard  (by  Compayre),  p.  50. 


307]  APPENDIX  307 

Abllard  and  Scholasticism. 

Abelard,  P.  (1079-1142),  Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  24:371;  Anselm,  Am.  Jour. 

Educa.,  24:368. 
Bush,  Mrs.  Wm.     Mediaeval   Popes,   Emperors,  Kings,  and  Crusaders, 

I  :ioi;  2:428;  4:432,  435- 
Compayre,  G.     Abelard  and  the  Origin  and  Early  History  of  Univer- 
sities. 
History  of  Pedagogy,  pp.  74-82;  also  Sat.  Rev.,  74:259. 
Cutts,  Rev.  Edw.  L.     Scenes  and  Characters  of  the  Middle  Ages.     Chs. 

22,  23. 
Davidson,    Thos.     Philosophy    of    Thos.    Aquinas.     Jour,    of    Specula. 

Philos.,  13:87;  Fortn.  Rev.,  38:16;  Mind,  8:610;  History  of  Edu- 
cation, p.  156. 
Duruy,   Victor.     History  of  the   Middle   Ages    (transl.   by   E.   H.   and 

M.  D.  Whitney),  pp.  248,  326-332. 
Emerton,  E.     Mediaeval   Europe,  pp.  446-464. 
Encyclopedia  Britannica,  or  Johnson's.     See  Abelard,  Albertus  Magnus. 

Alexander  of  Hales,  Bonaventura,  Duns  Scotus,  Thomas  Aquinas, 

Scholasticism. 
Erdmann,  J.  E.     History  of  Philosophy,  Ancient  and  Mediaeval,  pp.  290, 

423,  485- 
Fisher,  Geo.  P.     History  of  the  Christian  Church,  pp.  208-226,  271-286. 
France,  Anatole.     Abelard  and  Heloise.     Cosmop.,  18 :407. 
Hallam,  H.     Introduction  to  Literature  of  Europe.     See  Abelard,  Al- 
bertus  Magnus,  Scholasticism,  vol.  i,  pp.  36-54. 
Hallam,   H.     View  of  the   State  of  Europe  during  the   Middle  Ages, 

pp.  396-408. 
Lewes,  G.  H.     The  History  of  Philosophy.     See  Scholasticism,  vol.  2, 

ch.  I  ;  Scotists  and  Thomists,  vol.  2,  p.  87. 
Milman,  H.  H.     History  of  Latin  Christianity,  7 :234  ff. 
Morley,  Henry.     English  Writers,  3:104-106,  179,  335-337. 
Mullinger,  J.  B.     Schools  of  Charles  the  Great,  ch.  5,  p.  171. 
Mullinger,  J.  B.     The  University  of  Cambridge,  from   Earliest  Times 

(see  index). 
Schmid,  K.  A.     Geschichte  der  Erziehung,  vol.  2,  pt.  1. 
Seeley,  L.     History  of  Education,  pp.  121,  139. 

Sonnenschein.     Cyclopedia  of  Education.     See  Scholasticism,  p.  357. 
Taylor,  H.  O.     The  Classical  Heritage  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
Ueberweg,  F.     History  of  Philosophy,  Ancient  and  Mediaeval,  pp.  358, 

433.     See    also    St.    Anselm,    Albertus    Magnus,    Roger    Bacon, 

Thomas  Aquinas,  Duns  Scotus,  and  Abelard. 
Windelband,   W.     History  of   Philosophy    (Philosophy   of  the   Middle 

Ages),  p.  263. 
Scholasticism       (Townsend   on).    Sat.    Rev.,   53:776;    Harper's   Meta- 
physics, 58:410. 


3o8  APPENDIX  [308 

SUGGESTIONS   AND   QUESTIONS. 

1.  Explain  the  meaning  of  Scholasticism. 

2.  Who   were   the   leaders   among   the   schoolmen?     Name   some   of 
their  writings. 

3.  In  what  subjects  of  study  were  the  schoolmen  most  interested? 

4.  In  what  did  Scotists  and  Thomists  differ? 

5.  How  did  scholasticism  influence  educational  theory  and  practice? 

6.  What  effect  had  scholasticism  upon  the  Church  ? 

7.  To  what  was  this  second  revival  of  learning  due? 

8.  Why  should  the  name  of  Abelard   receive  mention  among  great 
educators  ? 


309]  APPENDIX  309 

THE  RENAISSANCE,  OR  EDUCATION  IN  THE  SIXTEENTH 

CENTURY. 

Burckhardt,  J.     The  Renaissance  in  Italy.     (Nat'l   Sc.   in  Italy),  2:9. 

(The  perfect  man  of  society),  2:150.     (The  position  of  women), 

2:160.     Reviewed  by  Henrietta  S.  Gardiner,  in  Dial,  11:192. 
Bruno,  G.     Lewes'  History  of  Philosophy,  2:92  ff. ;  Mind,  9:236;  Fortn. 

Rev.,  52:234. 
Clarke,  Sarah.     The  Portraits  of  Dante.     Cent.,  5  -.siA-     Exile  of  Dante. 

Cent.,  5:734,  833. 
Compayre,  G.     History  of  Pedagogy,  ch.  5,  p.  83. 
Cox,  K.     Sculptors  of  the  Early  Italian  Renaissance.     Cent.,  7 :62. 
Drane,  A.  T.     Christian  Schools  and  Scholars,  II,  chs.  5-9. 
Draper,  John  W.     Intellectual  Development  of  Europe,  2:190  ff. 
Duruy,  Victor.     History  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
Emerson,    A.     Petrarch    and   the   Universities.     Overland    (2d    series), 

8:190. 
Fisher,  Geo.  P.     History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
Gardner,  Ida.    Renaissance.    Educa.,  8 :547 ;  The  Great  Revival.    Educa., 

8  :663. 
Hallam,  Henry.     Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  the  Middle  Ages,  I. 
Kemp,  E.  L.     History  of  Education,  p.  149. 
Kiddle   &    Schem.      Cyclopedia   of    Education.      Erasmus,    Humanities, 

Sturm. 
Laurie,  S.  S.    The  Renaissance  and  the  School.     School  Rev.,  4:140,  202. 
Lewes,  G.  H.     History  of  Philosophy,  2  :89. 
Liscomb,   W.    S.    The   Loss   and   Recovery   of   Classical    Manuscripts. 

Educa.,  2 :22-37. 
Morley,  Henry.     English  Writers,  7:1-20. 
Painter,  F.  V.  N.     History  of  Education,  p.  119. 
Palgrave,  J.  K.     Chaucer  and  the  Italian  Renaissance.     19th  Cent.,  24: 

340. 
Paulding,  J.  K.     The  Wandering  Scholar  of  the  i6th  Century.     Atlan. 

Mo.,  66:480-491. 
Paulsen,    Fr.     German   Universities.     Also    in    Report   U.    S.    Com.    of 

Educa.,  1891-1892,   I  :  247-368. 
Payne,  Jos.     History  of  Education,  vol.  2,  Lecture  IV. 
Platter,  Thos.     School  Life  in  the  15th.  Century.     Am.  Jour.   Educa., 

5 :79,  90,  603. 
Putnam,  Geo.  H.     Books  and  Their  Makers  During  the  Middle  Ages,  I. 
Quick,  R.  H.     Renaissance  and  Its  Influence.     Educa.,  i  -.2,7,  177. 

Renaissance  Tendencies.     Educa.,  9 :583  ;  Sturm,  Educa., 
:o  :379. 


3IO  APPENDIX  [310 

Raumer,  K.  G.  von.     Eminent  Teachers  in  the  Netherlands.     Am.  Jour. 
Educa.,  4:714-728. 
The  Hieronymians.     Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  4:622-628. 
The  Renaissance  in  Italy.     Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  7: 
413-460. 
Schmid,  K.  A.     Geschichte  der  Erziehung,  II,  Pt.  2. 
Sonnenschein.     Cyclopedia  of  Education.     See  Renaissance,  p.  334. 
Stillman,   W.   J.     Italian   Old   Masters,   with   engravings.     Cent.   Lippi, 
18:462;  Botticelli,  18:501;  Gozzoli,  17:58;  Mantegna,  17:395;  Bel- 
lini, 17:852;  Signorelli,  19:73;  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  19:838. 
Symonds,  J.  A.     Renaissance  in  Italy :  Age  of  despots,  ch.  I ;  fine  arts 
(see   index).      The   New    Spirit;    Fortn.    Rev.,   59:427.      Renais- 
sance ;  Encyc.  Brit.,  20 :38o. 
Tatham,  E.  H.  R.     Erasmus  in  Italy.     Eng.  Hist.  Rev.,  10:642. 

"  Beginning  as  the  hand-maid  of  the  Church,  and  stimulated  by  the 
enthusiasm  of  the  great  popular  monastic  orders,  painting  was  at  first 
devoted  to  embodying  the  thoughts  of  Mediaeval  Christianity.  In  pro- 
portion as  the  painters  fortified  themselves  by  study  of  the  natural 
world,  their  art  became  more  secular.  Mysticism  gave  way  to  realism. 
It  was  felt  that  much  beside  religious  sentiment  was  worthy  of  expres- 
sion."   J.  A.  Symonds,  Renaissance  in  Italy ;  Fine  Arts,  p.  185. 

1.  Account  for  the  Renaissance. 

2.  Describe  briefly  the  more  important  phases  of  this  period. 

3.  In  what  fields  of  activity  was  there  a  decided  revival? 

4.  What  was  the  immediate  effect  of  the  Renaissance  on  the  methods 
of  instruction? 

5.  Note  in  particular  the  growth  of  the  national  spirit;  language, 
literature,  government,  schools. 

6.  Describe  the  life  and  schools  of  the  Bacchants,  or  wandering  stu- 
de;its. 

7.  What  nation  led  in  the  schools  of  the  Renaissance  period? 


311  I  APPENDIX  311 

HUMANISM  AND  REALISM.     ERASMUS  (1467-1536). 
STURM   (1507-1589). 

Barnard,  Henry.     Jolin  Colet  and  St.  Paul's  School.     Am.  Jour.  Educa., 
16:657-688. 
Sir    Thomas    More's    Letters    on    the    Education   of 
Children.     Am.  Jour.   Educa.,  23 :369-376. 
Browning,  O.     ICducational  Theories:  Humanistic,  p.  35  ;  Realistic,  p.  51. 
Humanism    in    Education.      Science,    9:161     (Feb.    18, 
1887). 
{  ompayre,  G.     History  of  Pedagogy   (see  index). 
Drummond,  R.  B.     Erasmus,  His  Life  and  Character,  vols,  i  and  2. 
Erasmus.     Quart.   Rev.,   180:1    (Jan.). 
Erasmus.     Cornhill  Mag.,  12:116. 
Eraser,  A.     Psychological  Foundations  of  Natural  Realism.     Am.  Jour. 

of  Psy.,  4:420. 
Froude,  J.  A.     Life  and  Letters  of  Erasmus,  pp.  1-22,  58,  67,  100,  138, 
181.  321.     For  criticism  of  Fronde's  Life  of  Erasmus,  see  Acad., 
46:343;  Dial,  18:73:  Sat.  Rev.,  78:384;  Ath.,  Oct.  6,  1894,  p.  447; 
Spec,  73:524- 
Harris,  W.  T.     Realism.    Johnson's   Encyc,   7:15. 

Humanism  in  Germany.     Westm.,  119:155. 
Jebb,  R.  C.     Humanism  in  Education.     Pamphlet. 
Kiddle  &  Schem.     Cyclopedia  of  Education,  pp.  282,  435,  795. 
Knight.     Labors  of  Erasmus  for  St.  Paul's  School.    Am.  Jour.  Educa., 

16 :672-682. 
Laugel,  A.     Precursors  of  the  Renaissance.     Nation,  34:312,  2Z^- 
Marsh,  A.  R.     Humanism.     Johnson's  Encyc,  4 :402. 
McCosh,  J.     Realism,  Its  Place  in  the  Philosophies.     New  Prin.  Rev., 

2:315- 
Mullinger,  J.  B.     History  of  the  University  of  Cambridge,  I.     Earliest 

Times. 
Norcross,   Geo.     Erasmus,  the   Prince  of   Humanists.     Annual   Report 

of  Am.  Hist.  Assoc,  1898. 
Painter,  F.  V.  N.     History  of  Education.      See  Erasmus,  Humanists, 

Sturm. 
Palgrave,    F.    T.     The   Oxford    Movement   in   the    Fifteenth    Century. 

19th  Cent.,  28  :8i2. 
Payne.  Jos.     History  of  Education,  vol.  2.     See  index. 
Powell.  J.  W.     The  Humanities.     Forum,  10:410;  Science,  n.  s.,  1:15. 
Quick,  R.  H.     Educational  Reformers   (Appleton),  pp.  27,  66,  149,  ig8. 
Ranmer,  K.  G.  von.     Verbal  Realism  of  Erasmus;  Am.  Jour.  Educa., 

5:657.    John  Sturm;  Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  4:167,  401.    Educational 

Views  of  Erasmus;  Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  4:729- 


312  APPENDIX  [312 

Seebohm,  F.     The  Oxford  Reformers :  Colet,  Erasmus,  More. 

Shaler,  N.  S.    Humanism  in  the  Study  of  Nature.    Science,  6:64  (1885). 

Sonnenschein.     Cyclopedia  of  Education.     See  Erasmus,  Humanities. 

Thurber,  Chas.  H.     Vittorino  da  Feltre.     School  Rev.,  8:295. 

Ueberweg,  F.     History  of  Philosophy,  Modern,  pp.  5,  467  (see  Realism 
in  index). 

Williams,  S.  G.     History  of  Modern  Education,  pp.  52,  88. 

Works  of  Erasmus  Cited.     Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  13:12. 

Woodward,  W.  H.     Vittorino  da  Feltre  and  Other  Humanistic  Educa- 
tors. 

1.  What  is  known  as  Humanism?     How  different  from  Classicism? 
From  Realism? 

2.  Account   for   Sturm's  great  success  as   a  teacher — Rector  of  the 
Gymnasium  at  Strassburg,  1537-1582. 

3.  Outline  his  course  of  study.     How  does  it  compare  with  the  pres- 
ent high  school  course? 


313]  APPENDIX  313 

CHANGES  IN  EDUCATIONAL  IDEALS.     RABELAIS    (1483- 
1553)-     MONTAIGNE  (1553-1592). 

Besant,  W.     Francis  Rabelais,  chs.  i,  2,  4.  ■* 

Browning,  O.     Educational  Theories  (see  index). 

Conway,  M.  D.     Rabelais  at  Rome.     Harper,  61 :820. 

Emerson,  R.  W.     Representative  Men  (Montaigne),  p.  143. 
Francois   Rabelais.     Edinb.   Rev.,   169:111. 

Johnson,  F.  M.     What  is  Reality?     Andover  Rev.,  11:225,  449;  12:73, 
453;  15:280. 

Kiddle  &  Schem.     Cyclopedia  of  Education.     See  index,  Montaigne. 

Lafleur,,  P.  T.     Rabelais.     Andover  Rev.,  15:215. 

Montaigne,  M.     Essays   (edit,  by  W.  Hazlitt).     See  Essay  on  "The 
Education  of  Children"  (edit,  by  Rector). 

Munroe,  J.  P.     Educational  Ideals,  pp.  8,  95. 

Painter,  F.  V.  N.     History  of  Education,  p.  175. 

Payne,  Jos.     History  of  Education,  2  :63  ff. 

Quick,  R.  H.     Educational  Reformers  (Kellogg),  p.  46. 

Rabelais  and  His  Educational  Views.     Am.  Jour.  Educa., 

14:147-158. 
Rabelais,  F.     Edinb.  Rev..  169:111. 

Raumer,  K.  G.  von.    Montaigne  on  Learning  and  Education.    Am.  Jour. 
Educa.,  4:461-478. 

Sainlsbury,   Geo.     Readings   in    Rabelais.     (Review   of   Besant's   Rabe- 
lais.)    Acad.,  24:392. 

Schmid,  K.  A.     Geschichte  der  Erziehung,  3,  Pt.  i. 

Sonnenschein.     Cyclopedia    of    Education.     Montaigne. 

Stout,  G.  F.     Physical  Reality.     Mind,  15:22. 

Tuckerman,  H.  T.     Montaigne.     North  Am.  Rev.,  87:356. 

Note  especially  the  educational  views  of  Rabelais,  as  expressed  in  his 
"  Life  of  Gargantua,"  and  of  Montaigne,  as  expressed  in  his  essay  on 
"  The  Education  of  Children."     What  is  your  criticism  of  these  views. 


314  APPENDIX  [314 

THE  REFORMATION  AND  THE  PROTESTANT  REFORMERS. 
Adams,  Geo.  B.     Civilization  During  the  Middle  Ages. 
Adams  &  Cunningham.     Swiss  Confederation. 
Allen,  Jas.  H.     Christian  History:  Third  Period. 

Beard,  Chas.     Martin  Luther  and  the  Reformation  in  Germany,  chs.  1-9. 
Carlyle,  Thos.     Lecture  of  Martin  Luther.     Acad.,  41  :i58. 
Carlyle,  Thos.     The  Hero  as  Priest;  in  Heroes  and  Hero  Worship. 
Cheatham,  S.     Early  Treatises  of  Martin  Luther.     Acad.,  25:197. 
Chejmey,  E.  P.    Early  Reformation  Period  in  England.    Univ.  of  Penn., 
Reprints  from  Original   Sources  of  European  His- 
tory, vol.  I,  no.  I. 
Christian  Brothers.     Am.  Jour.   Educa.,  30:729. 
Compayre,  G.     History  of  Pedagogy,  p.  112. 
Davidson,  Thos.     History  of  Education,  p.  175. 
Drane,  A.  T.     Christian  Schools  and  Scholars,  H,  ch.  xi. 
Draper,  John  W.     History  of  the  Intellectual  Development  of  Europe 

(5th  ed.),  pp.  476-494- 
Dyer,  T.  H.     Life  of  Calvin,  from  his  correspondence. 
Emerton,  E.     Koestlin's  Life  of  Luther.     Nation,  37 :357. 
Ernst,  C.  W.     Personal  Characteristics  of  Luther.     New  Eng.   (n.  s.), 

43:261. 
Fisher,  G.  P.     Luther  After  Four  Hundred  Years.     Cent.,  4:860. 
The  Reformation,  pp.  85-169. 
History  of  the  Reformation. 
Flower,  B.  O.     Reformation  and  Some  of  Its  Leading  Spirits.     Arena, 

1 1 :266. 
Froude,  J.  A.     Martin  Luther.     Contemp.,  44:1,  183. 
Gardner,  I.  M.     Outline  Notes  on  the  Renaissance  and   Reformation. 

Educa.,  9:35,  109. 
Gieseler,  J.  K.  L.     Church  History,  4  -.g  flF.,  385  ff.     Melancthon,  423  ff. ; 

Zwingli,  75-99;  Calvin,  209-218. 
Guizot,  F.  P.  G.     St.  Louis  and  Calvin. 
Guizot,  F.  P.  G.     History  of  Civilization,  I. 
Hodge,  F.  H.     Luther  and  His  Work.     Atlan.  Mo.,  52:805. 
Hutton,  W.  H.     The  Universities.     Social  England,  4 :88. 
Jackson,  S.  M.     Selections  from  H.  Zwingli. 
Jessopp,  A.     Parish  Priest  in  England  (before  the  Reformation).     19th 

Cent.,  36:468. 
Kapp,  F.     The  Luther  Celebration  and  Its  Sequel.     Nation,  37:466. 
Kemp,  E.  L.     History  of  Education,  p.  162. 
Kiddle  &  Schem.     Cyclopedia  of  Education,  pp.  282,  532,  727. 
Laugol,  A.     Youth  of  Calvin.     Nation,  48:112. 
Lawrence,  E.     Luther  and  Leo  X.     Harper,  39:91. 
Lea,  H.  C.     Studies  in  Church  History,  pp.  480  ff.,  494  ff. 


315J  APFENDIX  315 

Luther.    Martin.       Views    Concerning    Public    Education.       Am.    Jour. 

Educa.,  8  :350. 
Luther,  Martin.      Am.  Jour.   Educa..  6:40-.      Views  on   Education,  4: 

.121-442. 
Luther,  Martin.     W.  Ila/.litt.     Table  Talk.   117,  280,  338-346,  369   (see 

also  contents). 
Luther,  Martin.     Quart.  Rev.,  186:1-43;  Rev.  of  Revs.,  16:350. 
Luther,  Martin.     First  Principles  of  Reformation   (edit,  by  Wace),  p. 

44  ff.     Theses,  3.     Letter  to  Nobility,  17.     Letter  to  Leo,  95. 
Luther.   Martin.     Babylonish  Captivity  of  Church,   141. 
Montgoinery,  J.   E.     Luther  and  Germany.     Harper.  61  :38. 
Merk,  C.  H.     Luther's  Translation  of  the  Bible.     Criticism.     Acad.,  47: 

127  ;  also  151,  217,  238. 
Munro,  D.  C.     Luther's  Influence  on  Literature.     Chaut.,  26:11. 
Mullinger,  J.  B.     The  Educational  Reaction.     Social  England,  3 :228. 
Mullinger,  J.  B      The  University  of  Cambridge,  2  :20-34. 
Painter,  F.  V.  N.     History  of  Education,  pp.  131-154. 
Painter,  F.  V.  N.     Luther  on  Education,  pp.  128  ff.,  169,  210-271. 
Palgrave,  F.  T.      The  Oxford  Movement  of  the  15th   Century.      19th 

Cent.,  28 :8i2. 
Paulding,  J.  K.     Wandering  Scholar  of  the  i6th  Century.     Atlan.  Mo., 

66 :430. 
Payne,  Jos.     History  of  Education,  2 :35,  53. 

Perry,  G.  G.     History  of  Reformation  in  England,  pp.  i-g,  142-151. 
Ranke,  L.  von.     History  of  the  Popes,  i  -.57. 

Raumer,  Karl  G.  von.     The  Hieionymians.     Am.  Jour.   Educa.,  4:622. 
Educational    Views    of    Erasmus.      Am.    Jour. 

Educa.,  4 :729. 
Educational     Views     of     Luther.      Am.     Jour. 

Educa.,  4:421. 
Life  and  Educational  Services  of  Melancthon. 

Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  4 :745. 
Eminent  Teachers  in   the   Netherlands  Before 
1500.     Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  4:714. 
Robinson,   J.    H.     Pre-Reformation    Period.     Univ.   of   Penn.    Reprints 

from  Original  Sources,  3,  No.  6. 
Robinson    &   Whitcomb.     Period    of    Early    Reformation    in    Germany. 

Univ.  of  Penn.  Reprints  from  Original  Sources,  2,  No.  6. 
Schaff,  Philip.     History  of  the  Reformation  in  England. 
Schmid,  K.  A.     Geschichte  der  Erziehung,  H,  Pt.  2. 
Sears,  Barnas.     Life  of  Luther. 

Education  and  Educational  Views.     Abridgement  from 
Life  of  Luther.     Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  24:97. 
Seebohm,  F.     Era  of  Protestant  Revolution. 


316  APPENDIX  [316 

Seeley,  L.     History  of  Education,  pp.  174-181. 

Sonnenschein.     Cyclopedia  of  Education.     See  Luther,  Zwingli,  Calvin, 

Melancthon. 
Spalding,  M.  J.     History  of  the  Reformation. 
Stedman,  A.  M.     Oxford,  Its  Life  and  Schools,  pp.  13-26. 
Tulloch,  J.     Luther  and  Recent  Criticism.     19th  Cent.,  15:652. 
Warfield,  E.  D.     Boyhood  of  Melancthon.     Educa.,  17:385. 
Whitcomb,    M.      Period   of   the    Later    Reformation.      Univ.   of    Penn. 

Reprints  from  Original  Sources,  3,  No.  3. 
Williams,  S.  C.     History  of  Education,  pp.  48,  84. 
Zschokke,  Emil.     History  of  Switzerland    (see  contents). 
Zvvfingli.     Blackw.,  24:194. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  were  the  principal  causes  which  led  to  the  Reformation? 

2.  What  new  ideas  did  the  Reformation  present? 

3.  Were  these  favorable  or  unfavorable  to  popular  education?    Specify. 

4.  What  part  did  Feudalism  play  in  the  Reformation? 

5.  In  what  ways  and  to  what  extent  did  Luther  assist  in  advancing 
education? 

6.  What  important  educational  tendencies  in  his  times  did  Luther  fail 
to  recognize? 

7.  Why  was  the  association  of  Luther  and  Melancthon  an  exception- 
ally fortunate  one? 

8.  Compare  the  educational  views  of  Luther  with  those  of  Erasmus, 
Zwingli,  Calvin  and  Melancthon. 

9.  What  were  the  most  important  educational  principles  advocated  by 
these  Protestant  reformers? 

10.  What  system  of  schools  in  England  was  largely  the  outgrowth  of 
the  Reformation? 

Luther  on  Compulsory  Education. 

"  It  is  my  opinion  that  the  authorities  are  bound  to  force  their  sub- 
jects to  send  their  children  to  school.  ...  If  they  can  oblige  their  able- 
bodied  subjects  to  carry  the  lance  and  the  arquebuse,  to  mount  the  ram- 
parts, and  do  military  service,  for  a  much  better  reason  may  they,  and 
ought  they,  to  force  their  subjects  to  send  their  children  to  school,  for 
here  it  is  a  question  of  a  m.uch  more  terrible  war  with  the  devil."  .  .  . 

And  again  he  says  :  "  You  ask,  Is  it  possible  to  get  along  without  our 
children  and  bring  them  up  like  gentlemen?  Is  it  not  necessary  that 
they  work  at  home?  I  reply:  I  by  no  means  approve  of  those  schools 
where  a  child  was  accustomed  to  pass  twenty  or  thirty  years  in  study- 
ing Donatus  and  Alexander  without  learning.  Another  world  has 
dawned,  in  which  things  go  differently.  My  opinion  is  that  we  must 
send  the  boys  to  school  one  or  two  hours  and  have  the  boys  learn  a 
trade  at  home  for  the  rest  of  the  time." 


317]  APPENDIX  317 

ROGER  ASCHAM   (1515-1566)    AND  CLASSICAL  LEARNING. 

Ascham,  Roger.     Abstract  of  Schoolmaster.     Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  ii:S7; 
Am.  Jour.  Educa..  3:23,  39,  41;  4:  155-166. 
The    Schoolmaster.     Cassells'    Nat.    Lib.    Series. 

Arber,  Edw.  Roger  Ascham's  "  Toxophilis."  Roger  Ascham's  "  Scholc- 
master." 

Bain,  A.     Education  as  a  Science,  pp.  359  ff. 

Bancroft,  G.     Classical  Learning.     North  Am.  Rev.,  19:125. 

Barnard,  Henry.  Milton,  Life  and  Educational  Views.  Am.  Jour. 
Educa.,  2:61-85;  11:12;  13:719;  14:159;  22:181;  23:151;  28:383. 

Browning.  O.     Place  of  Classics  in  Modern  Schools.     Educa.  Rev.,  3: 
270. 
Classical  Criticism  in  Oxford.     Sat.  Rev.,  79:88,  120. 

Browning,  Oscar.     Milton's  Tractate  on  Education,  p.  167. 

Fitch,  Sir  J.  G.     Educational  Aims  and  Methods,  pp.  215,  220,  223,  225. 

Gill,  John.     Systems  of  Education,  pp.  4-13. 

Goodwin,  W.  W.     Educational  Value  of  Classics.     Educa.  Rev.,  9:335. 

Hallam,  H.     Introduction  to  Literature  of  Europe,  vol.  4  (see  index). 

Hazlitt,  Wm.  C.     Schools,  School-Books,  and  Schoolmasters,  ch.  15. 

Holm.an,  H.     Education,  p.  151. 

Johnson,  S.     Roger  Ascham. 

Kemp,  E.  L.     History  of  Education,  p.  180. 

Kiddle  &  Schem.     Cyclopedia  of  Education,  pp.  54,  139. 

Mcrley,  Henry.     First  Sketch  in  English  Literature,  pp.  305,  351. 

Morley,  Henry.     English  Writers,  VIII,  pp.  160,  167-170,  298-305. 

Mullinger,  J.  B.     University  of  Cambridge,  p.  624. 

Payne,  W.  H.     Contributions  to  the  Science  of  Education,  pp.  175-179. 

Quick,  R.  H.     Educational  Reformers  (Kellogg),  p.  40. 

Schmid,  K.  A.     Geschichte  der  Erziehung,  III,  Pt.  i. 

Seeley,  L.     History  of  Education,  p.  190. 

Sonnenschein.  Cyclopedia  of  Education,  pp.  29,  59.  The  Great  Public 
School  of  England. 

Winship,  A.  E.  Ascham  and  the  Schoolmaster.  Jour,  of  Educa.  (Bos- 
ton), 45:410.  See  the  topic  "Classical  Instruction"  in  the  index 
to  the  Am.  Jour.  Educa. 

Woodward,  W.  H.  Vittorino  da  Feltre  and  Other  Humanist  Educa- 
tors, p.  182. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  was  the  condition  of  society  in  the  time  of  Ascham? 

2.  How  general  was  education  ? 

3.  What  means  had  been  provided  for  the  education  of  the  people? 

4.  What  were  the  subjects  of  study? 

5.  Why  should  Ascham  be  classed  among  educators?    Why  among 
classicists? 


3l8  APPENDIX  [318 

6.  Name  other  educators  who  held  somewhat  similar  views. 

7.  What  incident  caused  Ascham  to  write  the  "  Schoolmaster?" 

8.  What  are  the  strong  arguments  in  favor  of  classical  learning? 

9.  Compare  the  educational  views  of  Milton,  as  expressed  in  his 
"  Tractate,"  with  those  of  Robert  Ascham  in  the  "  Scholemaster." 

Extract  from  the  "  Scholemaster." 

"  After  the  child  has  learned  perfectly  the  eight  parts  of  speech,  let 
him  then  learn  the  right  joining  together  of  substantives  with  adjec- 
tives, the  noun  with  the  verb,  the  relative  with  the  antecedent.  And  by 
learning  further  his  syntax,  by  my  advice,  he  shall  not  use  the  common 
order  in  common  schools  for  making  of  Latin,  whereby  the  child  com- 
monly learneth,  first,  an  evil  choice  of  words  ('  a  right  choice  of  words,' 
saith  Caesar,  'is  the  foundation  of  eloquence'),  thena  wrong  placing 
of  woids,  and,  lastly,  an  ill-framing  of  the  sentence,  with  a  perverse 
judgment  both  of  words  and  of  sentences.  These  faults  taking  root  in 
youth,  cannot  be  plucked  away  in  age.  Moreover,  there  is  no  one 
thing  that  hath  more  either  dulled  the  wits,  or  taken  away  the  will  of 
children  from  learning  than  the  care  they  have  to  satisfy  their  masters 
in  making  of  Latin. 

For  the  scholar  is  commonly  beat  for  the  making,  when  the  master 
were  more  worthy  to  be  beat  for  the  mending,  or  rather,  marring  of  the 
same,  the  master  many  times  being  as  ignorant  as  the  child  what  to  say 
properly  and  fitly  to  the  matter."     Book  i. 

"  The  way  prescribed  in  this  book  being  straight,  plain  and  easy,  the 
scholar  is  always  laboring  with  pleasure  and  ever  going  right  on  for- 
ward with  profit.  Always  laboring,  I  say,  for  when  he  has  construed, 
parsed,  twice  translated  over  by  good  advisement,  he  shall  have  neces- 
sary occasion  to  read  over  every  lecture  a  dozen  times  at  least ;  which, 
because  he  shall  do  always  in  order,  he  shall  do  it  always  with  pleasure, 
and  pleasure  allurcth  love." 

■■  When,  by  this  diligent  and  speedy  reading  over  those  forenamed 
good  books  of  Tully,  Terrence,  Caesar  and  Livy,  and  by  this  second 
kind  of  translating  out  of  English,  time  shall  bring  skill  and  use  shall 
bring  perfection,  then  you  may  try,  if  you  will,  your  scholar  with  the 
third  kind  of  translation,  although  the  first  two  ways,  by  my  opinion, 
be  not  only  sufficient  of  themselves,  but  also  surer,  both  for  the  master's 
teaching  and  the  scholar's  learning,  than  this  third  way  is,  which  is 
thus :  Write  you  in  English  some  letter,  as  it  were  from  his  father,  or 
to  some  other  friend,  naturally  according  to  the  disposition  of  the  child, 
or  some  tale,  or  fable,  or  plain  narration,  and  let  him  translate  it  into 
Latin  again,  abiding  in  such  a  place  where  no  other  scholar  may  prompt 
him.  U?e  yourself  such  discretion  for  choice  therein  as  the  matter  may 
be  within  the  compass,  both  of  words  and  sentences,  of  his  former 
learning  and  reading."     Book  2. 


319]  APPENDIX  319 

FRANCIS   BACON  AND  THE  REVOLT  AGAINST  CLASSI- 
CISM: INDUCTION  AS  THE  METHOD  OF 
SCIENTIFIC  INQUIRY. 

Argyll,  Duke  of.     Bacon  against  Huxley.     19th  Cent.,  36:959. 
Browning,  O.     Educational  Theories,  pp.  51,  52. 
Compayre,  G.     History  of  Education,  pp.  123,  136. 

Encyclopedia  Britannica ;  topic.  Bacon. 
Erdmann,  J.  E.     History  of  Philosophy,  pp.  668-684. 
Fowler,  Thos.     Bacon's  Novum  Organum. 

Hallam,  H.     Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe  (see  index). 
Hailman,  W.  N.     Lectures  on  Education,  pp.  54-57. 
Hill,  F.  A.     Educational  Value  of  Mathematics.     Educa.  Rev.,  9:349. 
Kiddle  &  Schem.     Cyclopedia  of  Education  (see  index). 
Lewes,  Geo.  H.     The  History  of  Philosophy,  Vol.  II. 
Macaulay,  T.  B.     Francis  Bacon ;  In  Critical  and  Miscellaneous  Essays, 

II.    Also,  Edinb.  Rev.,  65:  No.  CXXXII,  p.  i. 
Morley,  J.     First  Sketch  in  English  Literature  (see  index). 
Nichol,  J.     Francis  Bacon,  ch.  i  ;  also  pp.  206-209. 
Painter,  F.  V.  N.     History  of  Education,  p.  179  ff. 
Payne,  Jos.     History  of  Education  (see  index). 

Raumer,  Karl  G.  von.     Philosophy  of  Lord  Bacon.     Am.  Jour.  Educa., 
5:663-681. 
Realism  in   Education.    Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  5 : 

657. 
Universities  of  the   i6th  Century.     Am.  Jour. 
Educa.,  5:535. 

Rawley,  Wm.     Life  of  Bacon.     In  Works  of  Bacon,  edited  by  Jas.  Sped- 
ding  and  others,  vol.  i,  pp.  35-38. 

Reynolds,  S.  H.     The  Essays  of  Francis  Bacon.     Of  Truth,  p.  5;  Par- 
ents and  Children,  p.  43 ;  Custom  and  Education,  p.  275. 

Schmid,  K.  A.     Geschichte  der  Erziehung,  3,  Pt.  i. 

Seeley,  L.     History  of  Education,  p.  205. 

Sonnenschein.     Cyclopedia  of  Education,  pp.  36,  396. 

Thompson,  F.     Bacon  and  His  Works.     Acad.,  52 :53. 

Ueberweg,  F.     History  of  Philosophy  (Modern),  pp.  33-38,  5I9- 

Wasson,  D.  A.     Francis  Bacon    (Review).     New  Eng.,  10:333   (1852). 

Whipple,  E.  P.     Francis  Bacon.     Atlan.  Mo.,  22:476,  573. 

Williams,  S.  G.     History  of  Modern  Education. 

Windelband,  W.     History  of  Philosophy,  p.  378  flF. ;  p.  383  ff. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  In  what  ways  did  Bacon  aid  in  the  advancement  of  learning? 

2.  Why  was  the  time  especially  ripe  for  his  doctrine? 


320  APPENDIX  [320 

3.  Was  his  moral  life  in  keeping  with  his  writings  aijd  the  spirit  of 
the  time? 

4.  What  language  did  Bacon  use  in  his  writings?     Why? 

5.  Name  a  few  pedagogical  principles  advanced  by  Bacon. 

6.  What  other  educators  were  prominent  in  the  change  from  classical 
learning? 

7.  How  do  you  account  for  the  various  changes  in  educational  theory 
and  practice? 

Macaulay  says  that  two  words  form  the  key  of  the  Baconian  doc- 
trine: utility  and  progress. 

Extract  from  Bacon. 

"  Man  being  the  servant  and  interpreter  of  nature,  can  understand  so 
much,  and  so  much  only  as  he  has  in  fact  or  in  thought  of  the  course  of 
nature;  beyond  this  he  neither  knows  anything  nor  can  he  do  anything." 
Novum  Organum. 

"Certainly  custom  is  most  perfect  when  it  beginneth  in  young  years; 
this  we  call  education,  which  is,  in  effect,  but  an  early  custom."  Essay 
on  Education. 


32 1  ]  APPENDIX  321 

LOYOLA  AND  THE  SCHOOLS  OF  THE  JESUITS. 

Bacon,    L.    W.     Forgery   in    Polemics.     Secret   Instructions   of  Jesuits 

(2d  part  of  article  on  "Great  Educators").     New  Eng.,  28:533. 

Barnard,  Henry.     The  Jesuits  and  Their  Schools.     Am.  Jour.  Educa., 

15:455- 
Browning.  O.     Educational  Theories,  p.  118  ff. 
Cartwright,  W.  C.     The  Jesuits :  Their  Constitution  and  Teaching. 
Compayre,  G.     History  of  Pedagogy,  p.  138. 
Davidson,  Thos.     History  of  Education,  p.  183. 
Draper,  John  W.     Intellectual  Development  of  Europe,  II. 
Dzicwicki,  H.     Glimpse  into  a  Jesuit  Novitiate.     Blackw.,  146:366. 

Life  in  a  Jesuit  College.     19th  Cent.,  30:813. 
Fisher,  G.  P.     The  Protestant  Reformation. 

Hughes,  T.     Educational  System  of  the  Jesuits.     Cath.  World,  56:80. 
Loyola  and  the  Educational  System  of  the  Jesuits. 
On  the  Jesuits.     Sat.  Rev.,  74:174. 
Jesuits :  Loyola.     Encyc.  Brit. 
Ignatius   Loyola   and    His   Associates.      Edinb.    Rev.,   75: 

297. 
Ignatius  Loyola  and  Society  of  Jesus.     Am.  Jour.  Educa., 

27:165. 
Doctrines  of  Jesuits.     Quart.  Rev.,  138:57. 
Jesuits.     North  Am.  Rev.,  5  :309 ;  6  :i2g,  405 ;  7  :  112 ;  8 :200. 
Baffling  of  Jesuits.     Edinb.  Rev.,  173:495. 
Johnson's  Encyclopedia.     Jesuits  and  Loyola. 
James,  H.,  Jr.    Jesuits  in  North  America.     Nature,  4 :450. 
Kemp,  E.  L.     History  of  Education,  p.  184. 
Kiddle  &  Schem.     Cyclopedia  of  Education,  p.  492. 
Law,   T.   G.     Jesuits  and   Seculars  in   the   Reign   of  Queen    Elizabeth. 
Ath..  I  :i7i    (1890). 
Jesuits  and   Benedictines   in    England.     Eng.   Hist.   Rev., 
4  730. 
Lawrence,  E.     Loyola  and  the  Jesuits.     Harper,  39:697. 
Mullinger,  J.  B.     History  of  the  University  of  Cambridge,  II,  p.  25-26. 
Munroe,  J.  P.     Educational  Ideal  (see  index). 
Nicolini,  G.  B.     The  History  of  the  Jesuits. 
Painter,  F.  V.  N.     History  of  Education,  p.  166. 
Payne,  Jos.     History  of  Education,  2 :45. 

Perkins,  J.  H.     The  Founder  of  the  Jesuits.     North  Am.  Rev.,  59:412. 
Quick,  R.  H.     Educational  Reformers  (Kellogg),  pp.  21-38. 
Raumer,  K.  G.  von.     The  Jesuits  and  Their  Schools.     Am.  Jour.  Educa., 

5:213;  6:459.  615. 
Rose,  S.     St.  Ignatius  Loyola.     Sat.  Rev.,  73:548. 


322  APPENDIX  [322 

Reinhart,  J.  A.     Outline  of  History  of  Education,  p.  40. 

Schiller,  Hermann.     Lehrbuch  der  Geschichte  der  Padagogik. 

Schmid,  K.  A.     Geschichte  der  Erziehung,  HI,  Pt.  i,  pp.  100-159. 

Seeley,  L.     History  of  Education,  p.  182. 

Shea,  J.  G.     Reminiscences  of  an  ex-Jesuit.     Putnam,  2 :2I4. 

Starbuck,  C.  C.     The  Ignatian  Question :  Genuineness  of  the  Writings 

of  Loyola.     Andover  Rev.,  18:283. 
Thompson,  R.  W.     The  Footprints  of  the  Jesuits. 
Williams,  S.  G.     History  of  Modern  Education,  p.  103. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  Give  the  part  played  by  Loyola  in  establishing  the  order  of  Jesuits. 

2.  What  special  qualifications  did  he  possess  for  his  work? 

3.  What  was  the  aim  of  the  Jesuit  schools? 

4.  What  were  the  chief  subjects  of  instruction?    What  age  and  class 
of  students  were  included  in  their  provisions? 

5.  How  were  these  schools  maintained?    How  controlled,  and  how 
supplied  with  teachers  and  students? 

6.  Describe  what  seem  to  be  the  principal  features  in  their  method  of 
instruction  and  manner  of  discipline? 

7.  Account  for  the  rapid  spread  and  influence  of  the  Jesuit  Schools. 

8.  What  estimate  was  placed  upon  these  schools  by  the  leading  men 
of  the  times? 

9.  In  what  way  were  the  Jesuit  schools  especially  strong?    Wherein 
were  they  weak? 

10.  How  would  you  characterize  the  ideal  man  and  woman  of  the 
times? 


^2S]  APPENDIX  323 

THE  JANSENISTS  AND  FENELON. 

American  Encyclopedia.     Fcnelon  and  Port  Royal. 

Beard,  Chas.     Port  Royal,  I ;  II,  ch.  2. 

Bowen,  H.  C.     Jansenists  and  Their  Schools.     Educa.  Rev.,  6:485;7:64. 

Browning,  O.     Educational  Theories,  pp.  1 18-134. 

Cadet,  F.     Port  Royal  Education,  pp.  1-7,  46-59,  200-209,  221-245. 

Compayre.  G.     History  of  Pedagogy,  pp.  138  ff.,  164  ff. 

Fenelon,  Jansenism,  Port  Royalists.     Encyc.  Brit. 
Fenelon  and  His  Educational  Views.    Am.  Jour.  Educa., 
13:477;  20:481. 
Cummings,  Rev.  J.  W.     Fenelon.     Cath.  World,  11  :6i3. 
Johnson's   Encyclopedia.     Fenelon,  Jansenism,   Port   Royalists. 
Kemp,  E.  L.     History  of  Education,  p.  225. 
Kiddle  &  Schem.     Cyclopedia  of  Education,  p.  305. 
Laugel,  A.     Janet's  Fenelon.     Nation,  55 :45. 
Munroe,  J.  P.     Educational  Ideals,  p.  124. 
Painter,  F.  V.  N.     History  of  Education,  pp.  224,  234. 

Port  Royalists  and  Their  Schools.    Am.  Jour.  Educa., 
28:1  ;  30:707. 
Payne,  Jos.     History  of  Education,  vol.  2,  p.  45. 
Quick,  R.  H.     Educational  Reformers   (see  index). 

St.  Cyres,  Francois  de  Fenelon    (Review).     Ath.,   1901, 
2 :864.     Nation,  74 :237. 
Reinhart,  J.  A.     Outline  of  History  of  Education,  p.  42. 
Sander's  Fenelon,  and  His  Friends  and  Enemies  (Review).    Ath.,  1901, 

2:866. 
Schmid,  K.  A.     Geschichte  der  Erziehung,  IV,  Pt.  i. 
Seeley,  L.     History  of  Education,  pp.  188-189,  223-227. 
Sonnenschein.     Cyclopedia  of  Education,  p.  163. 
Williams,  S.  G.     History  of  Modern  Education,  pp.  197-216. 

QUESTIONS   ON    THE   JANSENISTS. 

1.  Compare  the  schools  of  the  Jansenists  with  those  of  the  Jesuits. 
Characterize  their  principal  difference  in  subject-matter,  method  of  in- 
struction, discipline,  aim,  influence,  etc. 

2.  What  prominent  leaders  of  thought  were  directly  or  indirectly 
connected  with  the  schools  of  the  Jansenists? 

3.  How  did  the  suppression  of  these  schools  affect  education? 

Suggestions  and  Questions  on  the  Study  of  Fenelon. 
I.   (a)   Advantages  of  birth,  environment  and  education. 

(b)  Fenelon  as  a  scholar,  as  a  teacher,  and  as  a  writer. 

(c)  State  of  society  and  condition  of  education  in  time  of  Fenelon. 


324  APPENDIX  [324 

((/)  Leaders  of  thought  during  Fenelon's  time. 

2.  (c)  What  was  the  nature  of  Fenelon's  Education  of  Girls?     Tele- 

maque,  Fables,  and  Dialogues  of  the  Dead? 
{b)   How  were  these  writings  received  at  the  time? 
(c)   How  are  they  held  to-day? 

3.  What  were  some  of  the  best  educational  ideas  advanced  by  Fenelon? 

4.  In  what   way  was   Fenelon   connected   with   Bossuet,   Madame   de 
Maintenon,  Madame  Guyon? 


325]  APPENDIX  325 

RATICH  (1571-1635)  AND  COMENIUS  (1592-1671). 

Bardeen,  C.  VV.     The  Text-Books  of  Comenius.     Educa.  Rev.,  3:223. 
Browning,  O.     Educational  Theories,  p.  51  fif. 
Busse,  F.     Object  of  Teaching.     Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  30:421-422. 
Butler,  N.  M.     Place  of  Comenius  in  the  History  of  Education.     Proc. 

N.  E.  A.,  1892,  p.  723. 
Calkins,   N.   A.     Educational  Work  of  Comenius.      Am.  Jour.   Educa., 

12:634,  647. 
Comenius,  John  A.    The  Orbis  Pictus.     Educa.  Rev.,  3  :209.    Am.  Jour. 

Educa.,  8:45,  76,  78,  351    (Ratich  and  Comenius)  ;    10:116,   145- 

146;  9:135;  13:83-84.     Jour,  of  Educa.  (Boston),  45:95. 
Compayre,  G.     History  of  Pedagogy,  p.  121. 
Davidson,  Thos.     History  of  Education,  p.  193. 
Field.  Mrs.  E.  M.     The  Child  and  His  Book,  pp.  155-159. 
Gill,  J.     Systems  of  Education,  p.  13. 
Hanus,  Paul  H.     The  Permanent  Influence  of  Comenius.     Educa.  Rev., 

3:226;  also  in  his  Educational  Aims  and  Values,  pp.  195-21 1. 
Hark,  John  Max.     Comenius :  Private  Life  and  Characteristics.     Proc. 

N.  E.  A.,  1892,  p.  703. 
Keatinge,  M.  W.     Great  Didactica  of  Comenius  (Review).       Sat.  Rev., 

83  :6i4. 
Kemp,  E.  L.     Historj'  of  Education,  p.  193. 
Kiddle  &  Schem.     Cyclopedia  of  Education,  pp.  159,  720. 
Laurie,  S.  S.   Comenius.   Educa.  Rev.,  3:211 ;  and  John  Amos  Comenius. 
Maxwell,  W.  H.     The  Text-Books  of  Comenius.     Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1892, 

p.  712. 
Monroe,  W.  S.      Comenius,     the     Evangelist     of     Modern     Pedagogy. 

Educa.,   13:212;   Educa.  Rev.,  12:378;  and  Comenius'   School  of 

Infancy. 
Munroe,  J.  P.     Educational  Ideals,  p.  68  (for  Ratich,  see  index). 
Painter,  F.  V.  N.     History  of  Education,  p.  200. 
Payne,  Jos.     History  of  Education   (see  index). 
Quick,  R.  H.     Educational  Reformers,  pp.  51,  60;  Acad.,  21:57. 
Raumer,  Karl  G.  von.     John  Amos  Comenius.     Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  5 : 

257- 
Ratichius    and     His     Associates.     Am.    Jour. 

Educa.,   II  :4i8. 
Wolfgang  Ratich.     Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  5  :229. 
Ratich   and   Comenius.     Am.  Jour.   Educa.,  6: 
462,  585  fT. 
Seeley,  L.     History  of  Education,  pp.  209-217. 
Shoup,  W.  J.     History  and  Science  of  Education,  p.  217. 
Vostrovsky,  C.     European   School  of  the  Time  of  Comenius.     Educa., 
17 :356. 


326  APPENDIX  [326 

Watson,  F.     Comenius.    Acad.,  43:149. 

Williams,  S.  G.     History  of  Modern  Education,  p.  154  ff. 

SUGGESTIONS   AND   QUESTIONS. 

Ratich  is  remembered  chiefly  through  his  method  of  teaching  foreign 
languages  (which  see),  by  means  of  which  he  was  able  to  teach  Latin, 
Greek  and  Hebrew  in  six  months ;  also  an  account  of  his  giving  prece- 
dence to  the  mother-tongue  over  other  languages.  A  summary  of  the 
essential  pedagogical  principles  of  Ratich  is  given  in  Quick's  Educa- 
tional Reformers ;  also  in  Barnard's  American  Journal  of  Education. 

1.  What  is  your  criticism  of  these  principles  and  of  his  method  of 
teaching  language? 

Ratich  and  Comenius  were  heirs  to  the  educational  thought  of  Luther 
and  the  Reformers;  to  the  classicism  of  Sturm,  Erasmus,  and  Ascham; 
to  the  systematic  schools  of  the  Jesuits,  and  to  the  change  from  the 
classics,  as  seen  in  Rabelais,  Montaigne  and  Bacon.  It  remained  for 
Comenius  to  unite  the  philosophy  of  Bacon  with  the  democratic,  or  in- 
dividualistic, view  of  Luther  into  a  system  of  public  education. 

2.  Comenius'  birth,  environment,  early  education  and  character;  his 
various  wanderings  and  disappointments? 

3.  What  was  the  nature  of  his  most  important  writings? 

4.  What  were  the  essential  principles  of  the  pedagogy  of  Comenius? 

5.  What  new  ideas  in  education  did  he  advance? 

6.  What  would  you  give  as  the  educational  ideal  of  Comenius? 

OrBIS    SeNSUALIUM    PiCTUS.l 

A  World  of  Things  Obvious  to  the  Senses  Drawn  in  Pictures. 

I. 

Invitation — The    Master    and    the  Invitatio — Magister  et   Puer. 

Boy. 

M.  Come,   boy,   learn  to  be  wise.  M.  Veni,  Puer,  disce  sapere. 

B.    What   doth  this   mean,   to   be  P.    Quid  hoc  est,  Sapere? 

wise? 

M.  To   understand   rightly,   to  do  M.  Intelligere    recte,    agere    lecte, 

rightly,  and  to  speak  all  things  et    eloqui     recte    omnia    neces- 

that  are  necessary.  saria. 

B.    Who  will  teach  me  this?  P.    Quis  docebit  me  hoc? 

M.  I,  by  God's  help.  M.  Ego,  cum  Deo. 

B.    How?  P.    Quomodo? 

M.  I  will  guide  thee  through  all.  M.  Ducam  te  per  omnia. 

I  will  show  thee  all.  Ostendam  tibi  omnia. 

I  will  name  thee  all.  Nominabo  tibi  omnia. 

'  Sample  copy  of  the  first  and  last  lessons  of  the  Orbis  Pictus  by  Comenius,  as  pub- 
lished by  C.  W.  Bardeen,  Syracuse,  N.  Y, 


327] 


APPENDIX 


327 


B.    See,  here  I   am ;   lead   me,  in 
the  name  of  God. 

M.  Before  all  things,  thou  ought- 
est  to  learn  the  plain  sounds, 
of  which  man's  speech  consist- 
eth ;  which  living  creatures 
know  to  make,  and  thy  tongue 
knoweth  how  to  imitate,  and 
thy  hand  can  picture  out. 
Afterwards  we  will  go  into  the 
world,  and  we  will  view  all 
things. 

Here    thou    hast    a    lively    and 
vocal  alphabet. 


P.  En,  adsum ;  due  me  in  nomine 
Dei. 

M.  Ante  omnia,  debes  discere 
simplices  Sonos  ex  quibus 
Sermo  humanus  constat;  quos 
Animalia  sciunt  formare,  et  tua 
Lingua  scit  imitari,  et  tua 
Manus  potest  pingere. 

Postea  ibimus  Mundum  et  spec- 
tabimus   omnia. 

Hie  habes  vivum  et  vocale  Al- 
phabetum. 


The  Close. 

Thus  thou  hast  seen,  in  short,  all 
things  that  can  be  showed,  and 
hast  learned  the  chief  words  of 
the  English  and  Latin  tongues. 

Go  on,  now,  and  read  other  good 
Books  diligently,  and  thou  shalt 
become  learned,  wise  and  godly. 

Remember  these  things :  Fear 
God,  and  call  upon  Him,  that 
He  may  bestow  upon  thee  the 
Spirit  of  Wisdom.     Farewell. 


CHL  Clausula. 

Ita  vidisti  summatim  in  res  omnes 

quae   poterunt   ostendi,   et   didi- 

cisti    voces    primarias    Anglicae 

et  Latinae  Linguae. 
Perge  nunc  et  lege  diligenter  alios 

bonos    Libras,    ut    fias    doctus, 

sapiens,  et  pius. 
Memento   horum ;    Deum   time   et 

invoca    eum,    ut    largiatur    tibi 

Spiritum  Sapientiae.    Vale. 


328  APPENDIX  [328 

JOHN  LOCKE  (1632-1704). 

Barnard,  H.    Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  8:46;  11:14,  461;  13:548;  14:305;  22: 
30;  23:145;  27:842. 

Browning,  O.     Educational  Theories,  ch.  8. 

Compayre,  G.     History  of  Pedagogy,  p.  194. 

Davidson,  Thos.     History  of  Education,  p.  197  ff. 

Everett,  A.  H.     Philosophy  of  Locke.     North  Am.  Rev.,  29:78. 

Fowler,   Thomas.    John    Locke,    in    "  Morley's   '  English    Men   of   Let- 
ters,' "  vol.  3 ;  also  in  separate  edition. 

Gill,  J.     Systems  of  Education,  pp.  19,  83,  221. 

Hailmann,  W.  N.     Lectures  on  Education,  p.  63. 

Kiddle  &  Schem.     Cyclopedia  of  Education,  p.  524. 

King,  Peter.     Life  and  Letters  of  John  Locke.     Also  Edinb.  Rev.,  50: 
1-31  ;  Westm.  Rev.,  107:77-92  (1879). 

Ladd,  G.  T.     Introduction  of  Philosophy,  pp.  13,  85,  125. 

Lewes,  Geo.  H.     The  History  of  Philosophy,  H. 

Lindner,   G.   A.     Encyklopadische   Handbuch   der   Erziehungskunde,  p. 
495- 

Locke,  John.     Human  Understanding  (edited  by  Eraser). 

Some  Thoughts  Concerning  Education    (see  his  works, 

vol.  8:6). 
The     Metaphysician — On     the     Philosophy     of     Locke. 
Blackw.,  39:796. 

Murray-Nairne,  C.     John  Locke.     Harper,  53:917. 

Painter,  F.  V.  N.     History  of  Education,  213  ff. 

Mark,  H.  T.     History  of  Educational  Theories  in   England.     See  In- 
dex. Locke. 

Munroe,  J.  P.     Educational  Ideal,  p.  ici. 

Payne,  Jos.     History  of  Education,  2:83,  170,  173. 

Quick,  R.  M.     Locke  on  Education. 

Educational  Reformers    (Kellogg),  p.  85;    (Appleton), 
p.  219. 

Raumer,  K.  G.  von.    John  Locke,  His  Pedagogical  System  Analyzed. 
Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  6:209;  11:460. 

Russell,  John  E.     The  Philosophy  of  Locke. 

Schiller,  H.     Lehrbuch  der  Geschichte  der  Padagogik,  p.  143. 

Schmid,  K.  A.     Geschichte  der  Erziehvmg,  IV,  pt.  i. 

Seeley,  L.     History  of  Education,  p.  220. 

Sonnenschein.     Cyclopedia  of  Education,  p.  197. 

Tate,  T.     Philosophy  of  Education,  p.  30. 

Williams,  S.  G.     History  of  Modern  Education,  p.  181. 

SUGGESTIONS   AND   QUESTIONS. 

I.  Birth,  health,  environment,  education? 


329]  APPENDIX  329 

An  accomplished  humanist  in  education,  he  becomes  an  active  scien- 
tist in  thought  and  practice.  Lectured  at  Oxford  on  Greek,  Rhetoric, 
Philosophy.  Student  and  teacher  of  children  in  the  home  of  Lord 
Shaftsbury.  As  a  result  of  this  experience,  gives  forth  his  memorable 
"  Thoughts  Concerning  Education."  The  essential  principles  of  this 
work,  which  every  teacher  should  read  entire,  are  summed  up  by  Com- 
payre  as  follows :  "  c.  In  Physical  Education,  the  Hardening  Process. 
b.  In  Intellectual  Education,  Practical  Utility,  c.  In  Moral  Education, 
the  Principle  of  Honor  set  up  as  a  rule  for  the  Free  Government  of 
Man." 

2.  What  do  you  understand  by  each  of  the  above  terms? 

3.  What  other  educational  writers  seem  to  have  paved  the  way  for 
Locke?  In  future  lessons  make  note  of  educators  who  seem  to  get 
their  inspiration  from  Locke. 

Compayre  speaks  of  Descartes  as  a  spiritualist ;  of  Malbranche,  as  an 
Idealist ;  and  of  Locke,  as  a  Sensationalist. 

4.  What  are  the  meanings  of  these  terms? 

5.  What  is  your  opinion  of  the  characterization? 

6.  How  would  faith  in  one  or  the  other  ideal  influence  the  theory 
and  practice  of  education? 

7.  Prepare  a  synopsis  of  the  more  important  principles  given  in  the 
"  Thoughts  Concerning  Education."  Designate  those  with  which  you 
agree  by  the  letter  "  a,"  and  others  by  the  letter  "  b." 

8.  How  did  these  principles  of  Locke  differ  from  the  practices  of  his 
time?     How  do  they  differ  from  the  practices  of  to-day? 

Extracts  from  "  Thoughts  Concerning  Education." 

"  Play  in  the  open  air  has  but  one  danger  that  I  know :  and  that  is, 
that  when  he  is  hot  from  running  up  and  down,  he  should  sit  or  lie 
down  on  the  moist  or  cold  earth.  This,  I  grant,  and  drinking  cold 
water  when  they  are  hot  with  labor  or  exercise,  brings  more  people  to 
the  grave,  or  the  brink  of  it,  by  fevers  or  other  diseases,  than  anything 
I  know." 

"  And  thus  I  have  done  with  what  concerns  the  body  and  health, 
which  reduces  itself  to  these  few  and  easily-observed  rules :  plenty  of 
open  air,  exercise,  sleep,  and  plain  diet,  no  wine  or  strong  drink,  and 
very  little  or  no  physic,  not  too  warm  and  straight  clothing,  especially 
the  head  and  feet  kept  cold,  and  the  feet  often  used  to  cold  water  and 
exposed  to  wet." 

"  Having  under  consideration  how  great  the  influence  of  company  is, 
and  how  prone  we  are,  especially  children,  to  imitation,  I  must  here 
take  the  liberty  to  mind  parents  of  this  one  thing,  viz.,  that  he  that  will 
have  his  son  have  great  respect  for  him  and  his  orders,  must  himself 


330  APPENDIX  [330 

have  a  great  reverence  for  his  son.  You  must  do  nothing  before  him 
which  you  would  not  have  him  imitate." 

"That  which  every  gentleman  (that  takes  any  care  of  his  education) 
desires  for  his  son,  besides  the  estate  he  leaves  him,  is  contained,  I 
suppose,  in  these  four  things :  virtue,  wisdom,  breeding,  and  learning. 

"  You  will  wonder,  perhaps,  that  I  put  learning  last,  especially  when 
I  tell  you  that  I  think  it  the  least  part.  This  may  seem  strange  in  the 
mouth  of  a  bookish  man.  .  .  .  When  I  consider  what  ado  is  made  over 
a  little  Latin  and  Greek,  how  many  years  are  spent  upon  it,  and  what 
a  noise  and  business  it  makes  to  no  purpose,  I  can  hardly  forbear  think- 
ing that  the  parents  of  children  still  live  in  fear  of  the  schoolmaster's 
rod,  which  they  look  on  as  the  only  instrument  of  education." 


331]  APPENDIX  331 

ROUSSEAU  (1712-1778). 

Browning,  O.     Educational  Theories    (Kellogg),  p.  152. 
Carlyle,  Thos.    Heroes,  p.  214. 

Character  of  Rousseau.     Nat.  Mag.,  3  1257. 
Carlyle,  Thos.     The  Hero  in  Literature,  in  Heroes  and  Hero  Worship. 
Caird,  E.     Character  of  Rousseau.     Contemp.,  30  :625. 
Compayre,  G.     History  of  Pedagogy,  p.  278 ;  also  lectures  on  teaching 

(see  index). 
Davidson,  Thos.     Rousseau;  also  History  of  Education,  p.  211. 
E^gleston,  Edw.     The  Schoolmaster  in  Literature,  p.  41. 
Everett,  A.  H.     Life  of  Rousseau.     North  Am.  Rev.,  15:1. 
Finch,  C.  E.     Rousseau.     Jour,  of  Educa.    (Boston),  45:319;  also  46: 

211   (Emile). 
Garrison,  W.  P.     Rousseau.     Harper,  58 :229 ;  Nation,  51  :.233. 

Genius   and    Character   of    Rousseau.      BladtW.,    n: 

^27- 
Hallam,  H.     Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe,  3:218. 
Hobbes,  T.     Leviathan. 

Hailmann,  W.  N.     Lectures  on  Education,  p.  74. 
Huxley,  T.  H.     Natural  Inequality  of  Man.     19th  Cent.,  27:1. 
Kemp,  E.  L.     History  of  Education,  p.  255. 
Kiddle  &  Schem.     Cyclopedia  of  Education,  p.  745. 
Lang,  Ossian  L.     Rousseau  and  His  Emile. 

Locke,  J.     Treatise  on  Civil  Government,  4:338  of  Locke's  Works. 
Morley,  John.     Rousseau,  vol.  i,  ch.  5;  vol.  2,  ch.  3,  4. 

Influence  of  Rousseau  on   European  Thought.     Fortn. 
Rev.,   17  :494. 
Munroe,  J.  P.     Educational  Ideal,  p.  153. 
Painter,  F.  V.  N.     History  of  Education,  p.  247. 
Payne,  Jos.     History  of  Education,  vol.  2,  p.  84. 
Payne,  W.  H.     Education  According  to  Nature.     Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1895, 

1 14-125. 
Pestalozzi,  J.  H.    Influence  of  Rousseau's  Writings.    Am.  Jour.  Educa., 

3  :404- 
Quick,  R.  H.     Educational  Reformers    (Kellogg),  p.  113;    (Appleton), 

p.  235. 
Raumer,  K.  G.  von.    Analysis  of  the  Emile.     Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  5:463- 
Reviews   and   Criticisms  of   Rousseau's  Literature. 
Acad.,    45:267;    53:404;    54:267.      Critic,    30:93. 
Dial,  25:261.     Nation,  66:133,  391;  75:362.     Sat. 
Rev.,   86:416.     Educa.    Rev.,    16:192.     Pop.    Sd. 
Mo.,  53  :848. 
Rousseau,  J.  J.     Confessions,  and  Emile. 


332  APPENDIX  [332 

Rousseau,  J.  J.     Biographical  Sketch  of  Rousseau.     Am.  Jour.  Educa., 
5  :459- 
Educational  Views  of  Rousseau.     Am.  Jour.   Educa., 
8:68,  80;  13:11,  88-90. 
Saintsbury,  G.     Jean  Jacques  Rousseau.       Encyc.  Brit,  21 :23. 
Seeley,  L.     History  of  Education,  p.  241. 
Shoup,  W.  J.     History  and  Science  of  Education,  p.  224. 
Steeg,   Jules.     Jean   Jacques    Rousseau.     In    Buisson's    Dictionnaire   de 

Padagogie,  2:2641-2647. 
Street,  A.  E.     Rousseau's  Theory  of  Education.     Educa.   Rev.,  5 :278- 

290. 
Sonnenschein.     Cyclopedia  of  Education,  p.  348. 
Schmid,  K.  A.     Encyklopaedie  des  Gesammten  Erziehungs-  und  Unter- 

richtswesens,   Rousseau,  7 :284 ;   also,   Geschichte  der   Erziehung, 

IV,  pt.  I. 
Weir,  S.     Key  to  Rosseau's  Emile.     Educa.  Rev.,  16:61. 
Williams,  S.  G.     History  of  Education,  p.  261. 

SUGGESTIONS   AND   QUESTIONS. 

1.  Early  life,  education  and  character;  the  nature  and  influence  of 
his  associates ;  the  condition  of  society  during  this  period ;  his  wander- 
ings, ingratitude  and  enigmas? 

2.  His  writings — their  nature  and  influence? 

3.  The  Emile:  Its  nature,  leading  principles,  and  influence  upon  edu- 
cation ? 

4.  Who  were  the  forerunners  of  Rousseau? 

5.  How  did  Rousseau  differ  from  them? 

6.  Name  some  of  the  contemporary  writers  and  philosophers. 

7.  What  was  the  principal  difference  between  the  teachings  of  Rous- 
seau and  those  of  Helvetius? 

8.  Were  the  principles  advocated  by  Rousseau  new? 

9.  How  do  you  account  for  his  great  influence  upon  humanity? 

10.  What  are  some  of  the  merits  and  some  of  the  defects  of  Rous- 
seau's teachings,  as  seen  in  Emile? 

11.  According  to  Rousseau,  what  is  the  ideal,  or  end  of  education? 

12.  In  education,  shall  we  follow  or  direct  nature?    Why? 
Rousseau,  speaking  of  his  early  reading,  says :  "  There  began  to  be 

formed  within  me  that  heart,  at  once  so  proud  and  tender,  that  effemi- 
nate, but  yet  indomitable  character  which,  ever  oscillating  between 
weakness  and  courage,  between  indulgence  and  virtue,  has,  to  the  last, 
placed  me  in  contradiction  with  myself,  and  has  brought  it  to  pass  that 
abstinence  and  enjoyment,  pleasure  and  wisdom,  have  alike  eluded  me." 
Again  he  says :  "  I  do  evil,  but  I  love  good.     My  heart  is  pure." 


333]  APPENDIX  333 

Extracts  from  the  Emile. 

"  Coming  from  the  hand  of  the  author  of  all  things,  everything  is 
good ;  in  the  hands  of  man,  everything  degenerates." 

"  In  the  natural  order  of  things,  all  men  being  equal,  the  vocation 
common  to  all  is  the  state  of  manhood ;  and  whoever  is  well  trained  for 
that  cannot  fill  badly  any  vocation  which  depends  upon  it." 

"  He  among  us  who  best  knows  how  to  bear  the  good  and  evil  for- 
tunes of  life,  is,  in  my  opinion,  the  best  educated ;  whence  it  follows 
that  true  education  consists  less  in  precept  than  in  practice.  We  begin 
to  instruct  ourselves  when  we  begin  to  live ;  our  education  commences 
with  the  beginning  of  our  lives ;  our  first  teacher  is  our  nurse." 


334  APPENDIX  [334 

THE  FRENCH  REVOLUTION. 

Arnold,  Matthew.     Popular  Education  in  France. 

Barnard,  Henry.     Public  Instruction  in  France,  1789-1808.     Am.  Jour. 

Educa.,  22:651. 
Buisson,  F.     Dictionnaire  de  Pedagogic,  vol.  2,  pt.  I. 
Carlyle,  Thos.     The  French  Revolution. 
Compayre,  G.     History  of  Pedagogy,  chaps.  16,  17. 
DeToqueville,  Alexis.     On  the  Causes  of  the  French  Revolution;  also 

(Review)    Putnam,  8:471. 
Dobson,  Austin.     Four  French  Women. 
Mason,  Amelia  G.     Salons  of  the  Revolution  and  the  Empire.     Cent., 

19:803;  20:12. 
Morley,  John.     Edmund  Burke. 
Painter,  F.  V.  N.     History  of  Education,  p.  296. 
Stephens,  H.  M.     History  of  the  French  Revolution. 
Taine,  H.  A.     Paris   before  the   Outbreak   of  the   French   Revolution. 
Contemp.,  32 :234. 
The  French  Revolution,  i. 

The  Conditions  of  the  People  on  the  Eve  of  the  Great 
Revolution,  A.  D.  1789.     In  History  for  Ready  Ref- 
erence, 2:1256. 
Williams,  S.  G.     History  of  Modem  Education,  chaps.  11,  12. 

Following  closely  on  the  publication  of  Rousseau's  Emile,  was  the 
publication  of  La  Chalotais'  essay  on  "  National  Education."  This 
little  book  was  favorably  received  by  the  philosophers  and  educators  of 
the  time,  and  was  thoroughly  imbued  with  the  revolutionary  spirit.  It 
gave  occasion  to  the  ideas  of  secularization,  centralization,  uniformity, 
obligation,  gratuity,  which  were  destined  to  play  such  a  large  part  in 
the  educational  discussions  of  the  Revolution.  In  speaking  of  secular- 
ization of  education,  La  Chalotais  says :  "  I  do  not  presume  to  exclude 
ecclesiastics,  but  I  protest  against  the  exclusion  of  laymen.  I  dare 
claim  for  the  nation  an  education  which  depends  only  on  the  state,  be- 
cause it  belongs  essentially  to  the  state;  because  every  state  has  an  in- 
alienable and  indefensible  right  to  instruct  its  members;  because, 
finally,  the  children  of  the  state  ought  to  be  educated  by  the  members 
of  the  state."  Again  he  says :  "  Education  cannot  be  too  widely  dif- 
fused, to  the  end  that  there  may  be  no  class  of  citizens  who  may  not  be 
brought  to  participate  in  its  benefits.  It  is  expedient  that  each  citizen 
receive  the  education  which  is  adapted  to  his  needs." 

Rolland,  in  commenting  on  the  necessity  of  establishing  a  central 
uniform  system  of  education,  says:  "Through  uniformity  of  instruc- 
tion, there  will  be  secured  a  uniformity  in  manners  and  in  laws.     The 


335]  APPENDIX  335 

young  men  of  all  the  provinces  will  divest  themselves  of  all  their  preju- 
dices of  birth;  they  will  form  the  same  ideas  of  virtue  and  justice. 
They  will  demand  uniform  laws,  which  would  have  offended  their 
fathers."  Turgot,  in  his  memoirs  to  the  king  (1775),  says:  "Without 
opposing  any  obstacle  to  the  instructions  whose  object  is  higher,  and 
which  already  have  their  rules  and  their  expounders,  I  think  I  can  pro- 
pose to  you  nothing  of  more  advantage  to  your  people  than  to  cause 
to  be  given  to  all  your  subjects  an  instruction  which  shows  them  the 
obligations  they  owe  to  society  and  to  your  power  which  protects  them, 
the  duties  which  these  obligations  impose  upon  them,  and  the  interest 
they  have  in  fulfilling  those  duties  for  the  public  good  and  their  own." 

1.  In  the  discussion  of  secularization,  centralization,  obligation,  gra- 
tuity, etc.,  what  were  the  leading  arguments? 

2.  What  was  the  final  outcome? 

3.  What  were  some  of  the  difficulties   encountered   in  organizing  a 
system  of  public  instruction? 

4.  What  provisions  were  made  for  the  training  of  teachers? 

5.  What  provisions  were  made  for  the  education  of  women? 

6.  Did  the  French  Revolution  tend  to  advance  or  retard  education? 
Why? 


336  APPENDIX  [336 

PESTALOZZI   (1745-1827). 

Assistants  and  Disciples  of  Pestalozzi.    Am.  Jour.   Educa.,  7 :285-3i8. 
Beust,  F.     Pestalozzi,  Froebel,  and   Primary  Schools.     Educa.,  3 142. 

Pestalozzi's   Poor   School   at   Nenhof.     Am.   Jour.   Educa., 

3:585. 
Boutwell,  G.  S.     The  Pestalozzian  System.       Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  44 155. 
Bradley,  J.   C.     Pestalozzi,  the  Teacher  of  Children.     Educa.,   11 :352, 

423- 

Brown,   N.     Pestalozzi's  Leonard  and  Gertrude.     Educa.,   15:176. 

Browning,   O.     Educational   Theories    (Appleton),   pp.    151-165;    (Kel- 
logg), p.  170. 

Buisson,  F.     Pestalozzi.     In  Dictionnaire  de  Pedagogic,  2 :2283-2354, 

Channing,  Eva.     Translation  of  Pestalozzi's  Leonard  and  Gertrude. 

Compayre,  G.     History  of  Pedagogy,  p.  413. 

Davidson,  Thos.     History  of  Education,  p.  229. 

DeFellenberg,  Wm.     Pestalozzi,  DeFellenberg  and  Wehrli.     Am.  Jour. 
Educa.,  10:81 ;  21 :765. 

De  Guimps,  R.     Life  of  Pestalozzi. 

Diesterweg,  F.  A.  W.     Pestalozzi  and  the  Schools  of  Germany.    Am. 
Jour.  Educa.,  4 :343. 

Froebel  on   Pestalozzi.     In  H.   Barnard's  papers  on   Froebel's  Kinder- 
garten and  Child  Culture,  p.  49 ;  also,  Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  31 :49. 

Hailmann,  W.  N.     Lectures  on  Education,  p.  93. 

From   Pestalozzi  to  Froebel.     Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1880, 
p.  128-137. 

Hamilton,  C.  J.     Henri  Pestalozzi.     Educa.  Rev.,  3:173-184. 

Harris,  W.  T.      Herbart  and   Pestalozzi   Compared.      Educa.  Rev.,  5: 

417-423. 
Holland,  Lucy  E.,  and  Turner,  F.  C.    Translation  of  Pestalozzi's  How 

Gertrude  Teaches  Her  Children. 
Kemp,  E.  L.     History  of  Education,  p.  282. 
Kiddle  &  Schem.     Cyclopedia  of  Education,  p.  693. 
Klemm,  L.  R.     Interview  between  Dr.  Bell  and  Pestalozzi.     Educa.,  7: 

559-562. 
Krusi,  Hermann.     Pestalozzi ;  His  Life,  Work,  and  Influence. 

Memoir  of  Hermann  Krusi  (1775-1844).    Am.  Jour. 
Educa.,  5  :i6i. 
Monroe,  W.  S.     Joseph  Neef  and  Pestalozzianism  in  America.     Educa., 

14:449-461. 
Munroe.  J.  P.     Educational  Ideal,  p.  179. 
Painter,  F.  V.  N.     History  of  Education,  p.  266. 
Payne,  Jos.     History  of  Education,  2  :97. 

Pestalozzi.     Account  of  His  Own  Educational  Experiences.     Am.  Jour. 
Educa.,  7:671,  703.  7^2,  715. 


337]  APPENDIX  337 

Pestalozzi.     Evening  Hours  of  a  Hermit.     Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  6:169. 
Pestalozzi's  System  of  Education,  Methods,  etc.     Blackw.,  66:93;  Am. 
Jour.  Educa.,  7:675,  503;  521    (Leonard  and  Gertrude); 
665     (Christopher    and    Alice)  ;     669     (How     Gertrude 
Teaches  Her  Children)  ;  Paternal  Instruction,  720;  Stu- 
dent  Life  at   Yverdun    under    Pestalozzi,   31:35;    Edinb. 
Rev.,  47:118. 
School  in   Bonnal.     Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  7:651. 
Pestalozzi  in  the  United  States.     Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  30:561. 
Bibliography  of  Pestalozzian  Literature.     Am.  Jour.  Educa., 
7:513. 
Quick,    R.      Educational    Reformers    (Appleton),    ch.    16;     (Kellogg), 

ch.  7. 
Ratimer.  K.  G.  von.     Karl   Wilhelm   Christian    von   Turk.      Am.   Jour. 
Educa.,  5:155- 
Life  and  Educational  System  of  Pestalozzi.     Am. 
Jour.  Educa.,  3  :40i ;  4 :65. 
^  Rousseau  and  Pestalozzi.     Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  5: 

48s.  _ 
Valentine  F.  Trotzendorf.     Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  5: 
107. 
Rein,  Wm.     Pestalozzi  and  Herbart.     Forum,  21  :346-36o. 
Schmid,  K.  A.    Encyklopaedie  des  Gesammten  Erziehungs-  und  Unter- 

richtsvi^esen,  2  :578 ;  5  :756. 
Seeley,  L.     History  of  Education,  pp.  257-271. 
Syffarth,  L.  W.     Pestalozzi's  Sammtliche  Werke,  16  vols.,  1872. 
Warren,  G.  W.     Pestalozzi.     Nation,  22:399    (Review  of  Krusi's  Pes- 
talozzi). 
Williams,  S.  G.     History  of  Education,  p.  299-316. 

SITGGESTIONS    AND    QUESTIONS. 

We  should  not  omit,  in  our  study.  Francke  and  the  Schools  of  the 
Pietists,  nor  his  disciples,  Niemeyer,  Semler  and  Hecker,  who  in  turn 
were  the  founders  of  the  real  schools  nf  Germany,  the  natural  out- 
growth of  the  scientific  spirit. 

For  references  see  Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  3:275:  5:441,  691,  695;  8:52, 
352;  10:110;  13:496,  502;  19:630;  20:338,  369. 

We  should  also  include  the  work  of  Basedow  and  the  Philanthro- 
pists.    For  references  see  Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  5:487;  26:557. 

Pestalozzi  as  a  child ;  effect  of  the  early  environment  upon  his  char- 
acter. Pestalozzi  as  a  student ;  as  an  agriculturalist ;  as  a  philanthro- 
pist. His  experiments  with  his  son.  Pestalozzi  at  Neuhof ;  at  Stanz ; 
at  Burgdorf;  at  Yverdun.  Pestalozzi  as  a  writer;  as  a  teacher;  as  an 
inspirer  of  men. 


338  APPENDIX  [338 

1.  What  prominent  educators  of  the  time  were  associated  with,  or 
influenced  by,  Pestalozzi? 

2.  Compare  Rousseau  with  Pestalozzi  as  to  character,  teaching  and 
influence. 

3.  What  were  some  of  the  things  that  exerted  great  influence  in  shap- 
ing Pestalozzi's  character? 

4.  What  was  the  leading  motive  of  his  life? 

5.  What  do  you  understand  from  Pestalozzi's  idea  of  educating  the 
head,  the  hand,  the  heart? 

6.  Also  from  his  three  divisions  of  knowledge,  i.  e.,  form,  number, 
sound  ? 

7.  In  what  consists  his  greatest  influence? 

Read  the  following  chapters  from  Leonard  and  Gertrude : 

Chap.  I.     A  weak  man,  a  brave  woman,  and  a  fatherly  ruler. 

Chap.  2.     A  tyrant  appears  and  finds  his  master. 

Chap.  8.     A  good  mother's  Saturday  evening. 

Chap.  25.     Gertrude's   method   of   instruction. 

Chap.  31.     The  organization  of  a  new  school. 

"  Seeking  to  understand  the  real  aim  of  life,  the  real  motive  of  that 
work  which  took  such  entire  possession  of  me  that  I  found  no  rest  in 
anything  else,  I  seemed  to  hear  an  internal  voice  saying  that  it  was  the 
need  to  free  man  from  the  sensual  domination  of  his  animal  nature, 
and  raise  him  above  the  view  of  his  being. 

"  That  which  I  long  for  and  seek  after,  that  which  is  holy,  unchang- 
ing and  eternal  in  the  aim  of  my  life,  is  in  no  way  mine :  it  is  humanity's 
and  God's.  What  am  I — what  are  we  all — in  such  a  work  as  this?  A 
nothing,  that  passes  with  the  moment,  like  the  insect  of  a  day."  From 
a  discourse  of  Pestalozzi,  1817. 


339]  APPENDIX  339 

HERBART  (1770-1841). 

Adams,  John.     The  Herbartian  Psychology  Applied  to  Education. 

Browning,  O.     Educational  Theories,  p.  174. 

Davidson,  Thos.     History  of  Education,  p.  232. 

DeGarmo,  Chas.     Coordination  of   Studies.     Educa.   Rev.,  4 :422-437. 

Herbart    and    the    Herbartians,    and    Essentials    of 

Method. 
Herbartian  System  of  Pedagogics.     Educa.  Rev.,   i  : 

33-45,  244-252,  453-462. 
Significance  of  Herbart   for   Secondary  and   Higher 
Education.     Educa.   Rev.,   11:40. 
DeGarmo,    McMurry,    Noss   and   others.     Herbart   and    Herbartianism. 

Jour,  of  Educa.   (Boston),  47:259-264. 
Douglas,  C.  H.     Views  of  Herbart  on  Mathematics  and  Natural  Science. 

Educa.  Rev.,  3  :490. 
Gilbert,   C.    B.      Some    Suggestions   to   Herbartian   Teachers.      Educa., 

14:75- 
Harris,  W.  T.     Herbart's  Doctrine  of  Interest.     Educa.  Rev.,  10:71-80. 
Correlation.     Educa.   Rev.,   9:274. 
Herbart  and   Pestalozzi.     Educa.  Rev.,  5:417-423. 
Herbart,  J.  F.     Science  of  Education    (Felkin's  translation). 

Text-Book  on   Psychology. 
Hughes,  J.  L.     Herbart  and  Froebel.     Educa.  Rev.,  10:239. 
Kemp,  E.  L.     History  of  Education,  p.  298. 
Lange,  A.  F.,  and  DeGarmo,  Chas.     Herbart's  Outline  of  Educational 

Doctrine. 
Lange,  K.     Apperception,  a  Monograph  on  Psychology  and  Pedagogy. 
Lukens,  H.  T.      Correlation  of  Studies.      Educa.   Rev.,   10:364.      Also 

discussion  by  W.  S.  Jackman.     Educa.  Rev.,  11:72. 
McMurry,    C.    A.      Elements  of  General  Method   Based  on   the  Prin- 
ciples of  Herbart   (revised  edition)  ;  also  related 
works  on  Special  Methods. 
Geography  as  a  School   Subject.     Educa.   Rev.,  9: 
448. 
McMurry,  F.  M.     Concentration.     Educa.  Rev.,  9:27. 
Munroe,  J.  P.     Educational  Ideal,  pp.  89,  189,  201. 
Parker,  F.  W.     Talks  on  Pedagogics,  and  How  to  Teach  Geography. 
Rein,  W.     Outlines  of  Pedagogics. 

Herbart  and  Pestalozzi.     Forum,  21 :346-36o. 
Rooper,    T.      Apperception    or    Mental    Operation ;    A    Pot    of    Green 

Feathers. 
Schmid,  K.  A.     Encyklopaedie  des  Gesammten  Erziehungs-  und  Unter- 
richtswesen,  3  :367. 


340  APPENDIX  [340 

Seeley,  L.     History  of  Education,  p.  278. 

Tompkins,  A.  Herbart's  Philosophy  and  Educational  Theory.  Educa. 
Rev.,  16:233-241. 

Ufer,  C.  Attitude  of  Scientific  Thought  in  Germany  toward  the  Doc- 
trine of  Herbart.     Educa.  Rev.,  12 :209-220. 

Watson,  F.     Herbart's   Science  of  Education,  Reviewed.     Acad.,  43 :8. 

SUGGESTIONS   AND   QUESTIONS. 

1.  Herbart's  early  life  and  education. 

2.  Herbart  as  a  student,  as  a  teacher  in  the  home  of  Herr  von  Steiger, 
and  as  a  university  professor. 

3.  Herbart  as  a  philosopher  and  writer. 

4.  What  changes  were  occurring  in  education  during  this  period? 
Jour,  of  Spec.  Philosophy,  10:166. 

5.  What  leaders  in  education  were  contemporary  with  Herbart? 

6.  What  are  the  chief  educational  doctrines  of  Herbart? 

7.  Were  these  new  or  only  differently  clothed? 

8.  What  would  you  give  as  his  educational  ideal  ? 

9.  What  would  you  consider  the  most  helpful  thing  he  did  for  edu- 
cation? 

10.  How  have  his  ideas  been  received  in  Germany?     In  America? 

11.  How  do  you  account  for  this? 

12.  How  did  Herbart  differ  from  Rousseau  and  Pestalozzi? 

Herhartianism  and  Instruction. 

1.  What  does  Herhartianism  include? 

2.  Define  interest  as  used  by  Herbart? 

3.  What  do  you  understand  as  the  meaning  of  apperception? 

4.  What  other  terms  are  similarly  used? 

5.  Explain  the  formal  steps  of  instruction.  Of  what  importance  are 
they  to  the  recitation? 

6.  What  do  you  understand  by  Concentration,  Culture  Epoch,  Cor- 
relation, Coordination,  etc.?  Why  are  these  terms  associated  with  the 
name  of  Herbart  ? 

7.  What  form  of  coordination  appeals  to  you? 

8.  What  is  your  criticism  of  Herhartianism? 

9.  How  do  you  account  for  the  seeming  lack  of  appreciation  of  Her- 
hartianism in  Europe  and  the  greater  interest  in  this  country? 


341]  APPENDIX  341 

KANT  (1724-1804).     FICHTE  (1726-1814). 

Browning.  O.     Educational  Theories,  p.  165. 
Compayre,  G.     History  of  Pedagogy,  pp.  332,  336. 

Fichte,  J.  G.     The  Nature  of  the  Scholar.     Dub.  Univ.,  62:60   (1863). 
Immortality  of  Man.     Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  8:29. 
Pestalozzi's  System  of  Education.     Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  4: 
150;  8:192. 
Kant's   Educational  Views.     Am.  Jour.   Educa.,  8:28,  48;   10:135,    137, 

191;  11:235. 
Kant's  Appeal  for  Basedow's  Philanthropinum.     Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  S :. 

504. 
Seth,  A.     Adamson's  Study  of  Fichte.     Mind,  6:583. 


342  APPENDIX  [342 

FROEBEL  (1782-1852).     EDUCATION  THROUGH  SELF- 
ACTIVITY. 

Barnard,  H.     Kindergarten  and  Child  Culture,  p.  279. 

Froebel's  System  of  Infant  Gardens.     Am.  Jour.  Educa., 
2:449-451. 
Bates,  Lois.     Kindergarten  Guide. 
Blow,  Susan  E.     Froebel — Symbolic  Education. 

The  Songs  and  Music  of  Froebel's  Mother  Play. 
Boone,  R.  G.     Education  in  the  United  States,  p.  332. 
Bowen,  H.  C.     Froebel  and  Education  through  Self-activity. 
Browning,  O.     Educational  Theories,  p.  164. 
Buchner,  Edw.  F.     Froebel  from  a  Psychological  Standpoint.     Educa., 

15:105-113;  169-173. 
Butler,  N.  M.     Some  Criticisms  of  the  Kindergarten.     Educa.  Rev.,  18: 

285-291. 
Carter,   Marion    Hamilton.     The   Kindergarten    Child — After   the   Kin- 
dergarten.    Atian.  Mo.,  83  :358. 
Compayre,  G.     History  of  Pedagogy,  p.  446  ff. 
Davidson,  Thos.     History  of  Education,  p.  235. 

Froebel,  F.    Pedagogics  of  the  Kindergarten.    Mother-play  and  Nursery 
Songs.    Autobiography.    Education  of  Man.    Autobiography.    Am. 
Jour.  Educa.,  30 :643-67o. 
Gill,  John.     Systems  of  Education,  p.  154  ff. 

Hailmann,  W.  N.    Kindergarten   Culture ;   also  Lectures  on  History  of 
Pedagogy. 
From   Pestalozzi  to  Froebel.     Proc.   N.   E.   A.,   1880, 
128-137. 
Hanschmann,   A.   B.     The  Kindergarten   System :    Its   Origin   and   De- 
velopment.    (Translated  by  Fanny  Franks.) 
Harris,  W.  T.  Early  History  of  the  Kindergarten  in  St.  Louis.     Report 

U.  S.  Com.  Educa.,  1896-1897,  i  :899-922. 
Heinemann,  A.  H.  (editor).  Froebel's  Letters. 
Herford,  W.  H.     The  Student's  Froebel. 

Hughes,  J.  L.     Froebel's    Educational   Laws ;    also   Review.     Pop.    Sci. 
Mo.,  51  :4i9. 
Infant  Schools  in  New  Lanark.     Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  26: 
411. 
Hughes,  Jas.  L.     Comparison  of  the  Educational  Theories  of  Froebel 
and  Herbart.     Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1895,  538-551. 
A  Natural  System  of  Education.     Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  45 : 

207. 
Future  Evolution  of  the  Kindergarten.     Educa.,  22: 
459  (Ap.). 


343]  APPENDIX  343 

Kemp,  E.  L.     History  ot  Education,  p.  291. 
Kiddle  &  Schem.     Cyclopedia  of  Education,  p.  328. 
Lange,  W.     Reminiscences  of  Froebel.     Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  30:833-845. 
Marenholtz-Biilow.     Educational  Views  of  Froebel.     Am.  Jour.  Educa., 
30:81,  324. 
Reminiscences  of  Froebel.     (Translated  by   Mary 
Mann.) 
Meyer,  Bertha.     Aids  to  Family  Government,  p.  116. 
Munroe,  J.  P.     Educational  Ideal,  p.  195  ff. 

Normal    Schools    of    Home    and    Colonial    Infant    and 

Juvenile  School  Society.     Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  9 :44g. 
Normal  School  at  Battersea.     Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  9:170. 
Payne,  Jos.     History  of  Education,  2:117. 

Peabody,  E.  P.     Principles   and   Methods   of   Froebel   in   the   Nursery. 
Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  30 :499. 
Plea  for  Froebel's  Kindergarten.     Am.  Jour.  Educa., 

30 :493- 
Individuality  and  Personality  in  His  System.     Educa., 

I  :6i6. 
Origin  and  Growth.     Educa.,  2 :507. 
Quick,  R.     Educational  Reformers   (Appleton),  p.  384. 

Kindergartens.     Encyc.   Brit.,   14:79. 
Seeley,  L.     History  of  Education,  p.  272. 
Shirreff,   E.     Educational   Principles  of  the   Kindergarten.     Educa.,    1 : 

425- 
Shoup,  W.  J.     History  and  Science  of  Education,  p.  229. 
Sonnenschein.     Cyclopedia  of  Education,  p.  125. 
Wendhausen,  Baroness  von  Biilow.     Froebel's  System  of  Education  and 

the    Spread   of   the    Kindergarten.      Report   of   U.    S.    Comr.   of 

Educa.,  1899-1900,  I  :883-904. 
Wiggin,  Kate  D.     Froebel's  Gifts  and  Froebel's  Occupations:  Kinder- 
garten Principles  and  Practice,  pp.  i,  43,  92,  145. 
Children's  Rights. 
White,  E.  W.  Christian.     Kindergarten  of  Froebel.     Cath.  World,  56: 

507. 
Williams,  T.     Kindergarten  Movement.     Cent.,  23  :369. 
Winship,  W.   E.     Sketch  of  Froebel's   Symbolic  Education.     Jour,  of 

Educa.  (Boston),  45  :ii2. 

SUGGESTIONS   AND   QUESTIONS. 

Froebel,  a  student  of  Pestalozzi,  was  also  an  original  thinker  and  ad- 
mirable teacher. 

I.  His  early  life,  environment,  education  and  character?  The  follow- 
ing outline,  to  be  filled  in  and  enlarged  in  class,  is  given  as  a  guide  to 
the  above  topic : 


344  APPENDIX  f344 

Frederick  Wilhelni  August  Froebel,  son  of  a  Lutheran  minister,  born 
April  21,  1782.  His  motiier  dying  during  his  infancy,  he  is  left  to  the 
care  of  servants  and  (age  4)  to  a  stepmother.  Educated  by  his  uncle 
in  the  town  school  of  Stadt-Ilm,  from  his  tenth  year  to  his  fourteenth; 
spends  two  years  in  surveying  and  forestry,  and  nearly  two  years  in 
mathematics  and  science  at  the  University  of  Jena ;  accepts  a  position 
as  clerk  of  forestry  at  Bamberg,  and  later  becomes  an  accountant  of  a 
large  estate  near  Baireuth. 

He  begins,  in  1805,  through  the  advice  of  his  brother,  the  study  of 
architecture  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main.  Here  he  meets  Dr.  Gruner, 
who  discovers  that  he  is  a  born  teacher.  Through  Dr.  Gruner's  advice 
he  gives  up  architecture  and  enters  Frankfort  Model  School  as  a 
teacher.  Dr.  Gruner  is  a  disciple  of  Pestalozzi,  and  through  him 
Froebel  visits  Pestalozzi  at  Yverdon,  and  is  delighted,  puzzled,  dis- 
satisfied. Two  years  later  Froebel  resigns  his  position  in  the  Frank- 
fort schools  to  devote  his  time  to  making  himself  a  better  teacher,  but 
accepts  complete  charge  of  the  three  sons  of  Frau  Holzhausen.  He 
tries  to  follow  in  their  education  Rousseau's  idea  of  isolation,  but  be- 
comes dissatisfied  with  the  principle,  and  spends  two  years  with  the  boys 
at  Yverdon,  under  the  shadow  of  the  institute.  Finishing  his  task  with 
the  boys  in  iBii,  he  enters  Gottingen  University  to  devote  himself  to 
further  study  of  language  and  science.  In  1812  he  enters  the  University 
of  Berlin,  where  he  soon  becomes  an  assistant  to  Professor  Weiss  in 
natural  history  and  mineralogy.  In  1813  he  enters  the  Prussian  army 
against  France,  and  becomes  intimately  acquainted  with  Middendorfif 
and  Langethal.  He  resigns  his  university  position  in  1816  to  open  his 
"  Universal  German  Educational  Institute  "  at  Griesheim,  later  at  Kiel- 
hau,  where  he  becomes  the  private  tutor  of  the  five  sons  of  his  two 
brothers,  Christopher  and  Christian. 

1.  Compare  the  life  and  work  of  Froebel  with  that  of  Rousseau  and 
of  Pestalozzi. 

2.  With  Rousseau  and  Pestalozzi  the  emotions  swayed  the  intellect. 
How  was  this  in  regard  to  Froebel? 

3.  Describe  Froebel  as  a  writer,  teacher,  philosopher. 

4.  Describe  the  school  at  Kielhau. 

5.  What  are  the  leading  educational  works  of  Froebel? 

6.  What  are  some  of  the  important  educational  principles  found  in  his 
"Education  of  Man?" 

7.  What  was  Froebel's  leading  educational  ideal?  Upon  what  philo- 
sophical belief  was  it  based? 

8.  Although  anticipated  before,  the  Kindergarten  was  Froebel's  best 
gift  to  humanity.  What  benefit  to  the  child  did  Froebel  hope  to  gain 
by  the  Kindergarten  ? 

9.  What  are  the  Gifts  and  Occupations,  and  their  purposes? 


345]  APPENDIX  345 

10.  Name  some  of  the  strong  and  some  of  the  weak  points  of  the 
kindergarten,  as  at  present  conducted. 

11.  Frocbel  believed  that  children  were  elevated  by  mutual  associa- 
tion, while  Rousseau  believed  that  such  association  would  be  injurious. 
Which  is  right? 


346  APPENDIX  [346 

EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  AND  WOMEN  AS  EDUCATORS. 
THE  BEGINNING  OF  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY. 

Among  the  prominent  changes  in  educational  thought  at  the  close  of 
the  i8th  century  was  the  increasing  belief  in  universal  education,  includ- 
ing the  principles  of  gratuity,  obligation,  secularization,  and  centraliza- 
tion. Note  in  regard  to  centralization  the  establishment  of  the  Imperial 
University  of  France,  with  its  feeders,  the  National  System  of  Educa- 
tion of  Germany,  the  beginning  of  the  Monitorial  System  in  England, 
and  the  development  of  the  State  Systems  in  the  United  States,  etc. 
Compare  these  systems  of  education  with  our  own  of  to-day. 

Up  to  the  closing  years  of  the  i8th  century,  the  education  of  girls 
was  almost  wholly  neglected.  The  instruction  of  children  and  the  edu- 
cation of  women  was  rarely  considered  necessary.  Among  the  things 
for  which  the  nineteenth  century  will  be  remembered  is  the  advance  in 
the  education  of  women  and  the  greater  attention  given  to  the  educa- 
tion of  children. 

Barnard,  H.     Am.  Jour.  Educa.   (see  index). 

Case,    Thomas.     Against    Oxford    Degrees    for    Women.     Fortn.    Rev., 

64 :89. 
Compayre,  G.     History  of  Pedagogy,  pp.  212,  478. 

Crow,  Martha  F.     Women  in  European  Universities.     Nation,  54 :247. 
Davidson,  Thos.     History  of  Education,  p.  220  ff. 
Dobson,  Austin.       Four  French  Women. 
Dupanloup,    F.    A.    P.      Thoughts   on    Female    Education.      Am.    Jour. 

Educa.,  17  :623. 
Everett,  E.     Education  of  Women.     Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  9:635;  12:723. 
English  Home  Life  and  Education  of  Women.     Am.  Jour. 
Educa.,  26 :369. 
Fawcett,   Mrs.   Henry.      Some   Eminent  Women   of   Our   Times.      See 

index :  Jane  Austin,  Maria  Edgeworth,  Hannah  Moore. 
Fenelon,  F.     Education  of  Girls,  in  vol.  2  of  his  works   (in  French)  ; 

see  also  Am.  Jour  Educa.,  13  :486. 
Gill,  J.     Systems  of  Education,  p.  48. 
Hall,  G.  S.     Educational  Reforms.     Ped.  Sem.,  i  :i-i2. 
Hitchcock,  E.     Mary  Lyon.     Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  10 :649. 
Kiddle  &  Schem.     Cyclopedia  of  Education,  pp.  299,  862. 
Lange,  Helene.     Higher  Education  of  Women  in  Europe. 
Earned,  J.  N.     History  for  Ready  Reference  and  Topical  Reading,  i : 

710  (England)  ;  i  :7i5  (France)  ;  i  :7i9  (Prussia)  ;  i  :743  (Educa. 

of  Women  in  U.  S.). 
Luxembourg,  Adele.     Women  at  Leipzig.     Nation,  59 :247. 
Munroe,  J.  P.     Educational  Ideals,  p.  207. 


347]  APPEN'DIX  347 

Payne,  Jos.     History  of  Education,  2  :50. 

Raumer,  K.  G.  von.      Education  of  Women.      Am.  Jour.   Educa.,    lo: 

227,  613. 
Seeley,  L.     History  of  Education  (see  index). 
Shoup,  W.  J.     History  and  Science  of  Education,  pp.  140,  147,  152,  159, 

161,  206,  251. 
Sonnenschein.     Cyclopedia  of  Education,  pp.  100,  509. 

Special    Training   of   Women.      Am.   Jour.    Educa.,   3 : 

485.  495- 
U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education.  Annual  Reports  (see  index). 
Steffens,  J.   B.     Women   Students  and  Women  Teachers  in  Germany. 
Nation.  59:232.     See  afto  Nation,  58:116,  137,  154,  193,  212,  271. 

1.  Account  for  the  rapid  increase  of  woman's  influence  in  education. 

2.  Who  were  some  of  the  women  educators  ushering  in  the  change? 

3.  Upon  what  phases  of  education  did  their  writings  principally  treat? 

4.  What  ideas  advanced  by  them  of  woman's  place  and  work  are  held 
to  be  true  to-day? 

5.  Compare  the  educational  views  of  Maria  Edgeworth  with  those  of 
Froebel. 

6.  To  what  do  you  attribute  the  increasing  importance  placed  upon 
the  education  of  women  at  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century? 

Madame  de  Remusat's  Characterization  of  Women. 
"  We  lack  continuity  and  depth  when  we  would  apply  ourselves  to 
general  questions.  Endowed  with  a  quick  intelligence,  we  hear  promptly, 
and  we  even  divine  and  see  just  as  well  as  men ;  but  too  easily  moved  to 
remain  impartial,  too  mobile  to  be  profound,  perceiving  is  easier  for  us 
than  observing.  Prolonged  attention  wearies  us ;  we  are,  in  short,  more 
mild  than  patient.  More  sensitive  and  more  devoted  than  men,  women 
are  ignorant  of  that  sort  of  selfishness  which  an  independent  being  ex- 
hibits outwardly  as  a  consciousness  of  his  own  power.  To  obtain  from 
them  any  activity  whatever,  it  is  almost  always  necessary  to  interest 
them  in  the  happiness  of  another.  Their  very  faults  are  the  outgrowths 
of  their  condition.  The  same  cause  will  excite  in  man  emotions  of 
pride,  and  in  woman  only  those  of  vanity."  Compayre's  History  of 
Pedagogy,  p.  488. 


348  APPENDIX  [348 

BELL  (1753-1832)   AND  LANCASTER   (1778-1838)  ;  OR,  THE 
MONITORL\L  SYSTEM  OF  EDUCATION. 

Barnard,  H.     Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  1:307;   10:323,  355,  461,  467,  503;  13: 

150;  14:626;  15:106;  16:529. 
Compayre,  G.     History  of  Pedagogy,  p.  514. 
Gill,  J.     Systems  of  Education,  pp.  162,  189. 
Kiddle  &  Schem.     Cyclopedia  of  Education,  p.  594. 

Bell  and  Lancaster's  System  of  Education.     Quart. 
Rev.,  6:264. 
Leitch,  Jas.     Practical  Educationalists  and  Their  Systems,  pp.  121,  142, 
163,  204,  237. 
Lancastrian  System  of  Education  (Sydney  Smith).    Edinb. 
Rev.,  9:177;  17:67;  19:1;  21:207.     North  Am.  Rev.,  18: 
188.     Educa.,  I  :265. 
Mark,  H.  T.     Educational  Theories  in  England,  pp.  118-119. 
Seeley,  L.     History  of  Education,  p.  305  ff. 
Sharpless,  Isaac.     English  Education,  ch.  i. 
Sonnenschein.     Cyclopedia  of  Education,  p.  225. 

1.  Give  an  account  of  the  origin  and  manner  of  conducting  the  moni- 
torial system. 

2.  What  are  its  advantages?     Its  disadvantages? 

3.  How  do  you  account  for  the  rapid  spread  of  the  system? 

4.  Is  the  monitorial  system  now  used  outside  of  Sunday-school  work? 

5.  What  was  the  general  condition  of  education  at  the  beginning  of 
the  19th  century?  What  provisions  were  made  for  the  preparation  of 
teachers  ? 


349]  APPENDIX  349 

HERBERT  SPENCER  (1820 ). 

Account  of  Spencer's  Life.     Rev.  of  Revs.,  12:698. 

Adams,    L.      The    Metaphysics   of    Evolution — Spencer's    Principles   of 

Psychology.     New  Englander,  34:419. 
Barnard,  H.     Thoughts  on  Education,  from  Works  of  Herbert  Spencer. 
Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  11:485;  13:372. 
Agnosticism  of  H.  Spencer.     Rev.  of  Revs.,  12:88. 
Butler,  N.  M.     What  Knowledge  is  of  Most  Worth?     Educa.  Rev.,  10: 

105 ;  also  chap.  2  in  "  The  Meaning  of  Education." 
Compayre,  G.     History  of  Pedagogy,  chap.  22,  p.  535  f¥. 
Harris,  W.  T.     Spencer  and  What  to  Study.     Educa.  Rev.,  24:135. 
Henderson,  C.  H.     Critics  of  Herbert  Spencer.     Educa.,  10:297. 
Hudson,  W.  H.     Herbert  Spencer,  with  portrait ;  also  Arena,  5 :273. 

Spencer's  Guiding  Principles.     An  Introduction  to  the 
Philosophy  of  Herbert   Spencev,  with  biographical 
sketch.     Educa.,   16:78,  144. 
The  Man  and  His  Work.     Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  50 :433. 
Jordan,  D.  S.     Spencer's  Essay  on  Education.     Cosmop.,  29:266-276. 
Laurie,  S.  S.     Herbert  Spencer's  Chapter  on  Moral  Education.     Educa. 

Rev.,  4:485-491. 
Leitch,  Jas.     Educationalists  and  Their  Systems,  p.  239. 
Payne,  Jos.     Lectures  on  History  of  Education,  2:185. 
Quick,  R.  H.     Educational  Reformers   (Appleton),  p.  493;    (Kellogg), 
pp.  234-268. 
Sper.cer's  Essays.     Sat.  Rev.,  71  :446. 
Spencer,  Herbert.     Principles  of  Psychology.     New  Englander,  32 :468. 
The  Rights  of  Children  and  the  True  Principles  of 
Family  Government.     Replies  to  Criticisms,  Fortn. 
Rev.,  20:581,  715. 
Education :  Intellectual,  Moral  and  Physical. 
Williams,  -S.  G.     History  of  Modern  Education,  p.  337. 

SUGGESTIONS   AND   QUESTIONS. 

1.  Ht;rbert  Spencer's  early  life  and  education;  writings;  influence  in 
changi^-ng  thought? 

2.  'rhe  conditions  of  education   in   England  at   the  beginning  of  this 
peri/od  ? 

3.  What  new  view  of  life  and  of  society  was  just  beginning  to  dawn? 
'4.  In  what  field  of  thought  has  Spencer  been  most  prominent? 

A  Study  of  Spencer's  Education. 
Chapter  I.     What  knowledge  is  of  the  most  worth? 

I.  What  is  the  importance  of  knowing  the  relative  value  of  studies? 
How  is  this  value  to  be  determined? 


350  APPENDIX  [350 

2.  What  is  Spencer's  ideal  of  education  ? 

3.  Does  a  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  health  prolong  life? 

"  Thus  to  the  question  with  which  we  set  out — What  knowledge  is  of 
the  most  worth? — the  uniform  reply  is,  Science.  This  is  the  verdict  on 
all  the  counts. 

"  For  the  direct  preservation,  or  the  maintenance  of  life  and  health, 
the  all-important  knowledge  is — Science. 

'■  For  that  indirect  self-preservation  which  we  call  gaining  a  liveli- 
hood, the  knowledge  of  the  greatest  value  is — Science. 

"  For  the  due  discharge  of  parental  functions,  the  proper  guidance  is 
to  be  found  only  in — Science. 

■'  For  that  interpretation  of  national  life,  past  and  present,  without 
which  the  citizen  cannot  rightly  regulate  his  conduct,  the  indispensable 
key  is — Science.  Alike  for  the  most  perfect  production  and  highest 
enjoyment  of  art  iP.-all  its  forms,  the  needful  preparation  is  still — 
Science.  And  for  the  purposes  of  discipline,  intellectual,  moral,  relig- 
ious, the  most  efficient  study  is,  once  more— Science." 

"  We  do  not  mean  to  say  that  tijese  divisions  are  definitely  separable. 
We  do  not  deny  that  they  are  intricately  entangled  with  each  other  in 
such  way  that  there  can  be  no  training,,  foi"  any  that  is  not,  in  some 
measure,  a  training  for  all.  Nor  do  we  qjiestion  that  for  each  division 
there  are  portions  more  important  than  cef^^'"  portions  of  the  pre- 
ceding divisions."  '^ 

1.  What  is  included  under  the  term  Science?     "\ 

2.  Give  the  principal  arguments  upon  which  the,  ^^°^^  conclusions 
are  reached? 

3.  What  is  your  criticism  of  the  chapter? 

Chapter  II.     Intellectual  Education. 

"  Were   we   in    possession   of   the   true   method,    divergci'^^^   from    it 
would,   of  course,   be  prejudicial;   but  the  true   method  ha  ^'"^  ^^  ^^ 
found,   the  effects  of  the  numerous   independent  seekers   cari"^'"^  °"* 
their  researches  in  different  directions  constitute  a   better  agti^^^ 
finding  it  than  any  that  could  be  devised." 

"  Of    the    three    phases    through    which    human    opinion    passes"' 
unanimity  of  the  ignorant,  the  disagreement  of  the  inquiring,  anc^  ^ 
unanimity  of  the  wise — it  is  manifest  that  the  second  is  the  parent 
the  third." 

"  People  are  beginning  to  see  that  the  first  requisite  to  success  in  In  * 
is  to  be  a  good  animal." 

"  In  the  acquirement  of  languages,  the  grammar-school  plan  is  being 
superseded  by  plans  based  on  the  spontaneous  process  followed  by  the 
child  in  gaining  its  mother-tongue." 

"  There  is  a  spreading  opinion  that  the  rise  of  an  appetite  for  any 


35 1  ]  APPENDIX  351 

kind  of  knowledge  implies  that  the  unfolding  mind  has  become  fit  to 
assimilate  it,  and  needs  it  for  the  purpose  of  growth ;  and  that,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  disgust  felt  toward  any  kind  of  knowledge  is  a  sign  that 
it  is  prematurely  presented,  or  that  it  is  presented  in  an  indigestible 
form." 

"  But  if  there  is  a  more  worthy  aim  for  us  than  to  become  drudges ; 
if  there  are  other  uses  in  the  things  around  us  than  their  power  to  bring 
money ;  if  there  are  higher  faculties  to  be  exercised  than  acquisitive  and 
sensual  ones ;  if  the  pleasures  which  poetry,  art  and  science,  and  phil- 
osophy can  bring  are  of  any  moment,  then  it  is  desirable  that  the  in- 
stinctive inclination  which  every  child  shows  to  observe  natural  beau- 
ties and  investigate  phenomena  should  be  encouraged." 

4.  What  should  be  the  range  of  object  lessons? 

5.  What  are  some  of  the  most  helpful  suggestions  in  the  chapter  on 
"  Intellectual  Education  ?" 

Chapter  III.     Moral  Education. 

1.  What  is  the  use  of  ideals  in  education? 

2.  What  does  Spencer  consider  to  be  the  true  aim  in  moral  education? 

3.  What  are  natural  punishments?     Are  they  uniform  and  just? 

4.  How  is  the  law  of  natural  consequences  to  be  applied  by  parent 
and  teacher? 

5.  When  is  Nature's  method  of  discipline  violated  by  society? 

6.  What  is  your  opinion  of  Spencer's  views  as  expressed  in  the  chap- 
ter on  Moral  Education? 

"  From  whatever  basis  they  start,  all  theories  of  morality  agree  in 
considering  that  conduct  whose  total  results,  immediate  and  remote,  are 
beneficial,  is  good  conduct ;  while  the  conduct  whose  total  results,  imme- 
diate and  remote,  are  injurious,  is  bad  conduct." 

Advantages,  as  enumerated  by  Spencer,  to  be  obtained  by  the  appli- 
cation of  the  principle  of  natural  consequences  in  discipline :  "  First, 
that  it  gives  that  rational  comprehension  of  right  and  wrong  which  re- 
sults from  actual  experience  of  the  good  and  bad  consequences  caused 
by  them." 

"  Second,  that  the  child,  suffering  nothing  more  than  the  painful 
effects  brought  upon  it  by  its  own  wrong  actions,  must  recognize,  more 
or  less  clearly,  the  justice  of  the  penalties." 

"Third,  that,  recognizing  the  justice  of  the  penalties,  and  receiving 
those  penalties  through  the  workings  of  things,  rather  than  at  the  hands 
of  an  individual,  its  temper  will  be  less  disturbed ;  while  the  parent, 
occupying  the  comparatively  passive  position  of  taking  care  that  the 
natural  penalties  are  felt,  will  preserve  a  comparative  equanimity." 

"  Fourth,  that,  mutual  exasperation  being  thus,  in  great  measure, 
prevented,  a  much  happier  and  more  influential  state  of  feelings  will 
exist  between  parent  and  child." 


352  APPENDIX  [352 

"  Command  only  in  those  cases  in  which  other  means  are  inapplicable, 
or  have  failed." 

"  Bear  constantly  in  mind  the  truth  that  the  aim  of  your  discipline 
should  be  to  produce  a  self-governing  being — not  to  produce  a  being  to 
be  governed  by  others." 

"  Not  only  will  you  have  constantly  to  analyze  the  motives  of  your 
children,  but  you  will  have  to  analyze  your  own  motives — to  discrimi- 
nate between  those  internal  suggestions  springing  from  a  true  parental 
solicitude,  and  those  which  spring  from  your  own  selfishness.  ...  In 
brief,  you  will  have  to  carry  on  your  higher  education  at  the  same  time 
that  you  are  educating  your  children." 

Chapter  IV.  Physical  Education. 

1.  Account  for  the  greater  interest  manifested  in  the  training  of  ani- 
mals than  of  children. 

2.  Why  is  the  physical  development  of  children  of  so  much  import- 
ance? 

3.  To  what  organic  laws  are  all  living  creatures  subject? 

4.  Which  is  the  more  dangerous,  under  or  over-feeding?     Why? 

5.  What  is  the  proper  guide  in  determining  the  kind  and  amount  of 
the  child's  food? 

6.  What  are  the  best  foods? 

7.  What  is  Spencer's  view  of  the  hardening  process? 

8.  Does  Spencer  agree  with  Locke  on  physical  education?     Explain. 
"  But,  paying  due  regard  to  those  two  qualifications,  our  conclusions 

are :  that  food  of  children  should  be  highly  nutritive,  that  it  should  be 
varied  at  each  meal  and  at  successive  meals,  and  that  it  should  be  abun- 
dant." 

"  With  clothing,  as  with  food,  the  established  tendency  is  towards  an 
improper  scantiness." 

"  Among  the  sensations  serving  for  our  guidance  are  those  of  heat 
and  cold ;  and  a  clothing  for  children  which  does  not  carefully  consult 
these  sensations  is  to  be  condemned.  The  common  notion  about 
hardening  is  a  grievous  delusion." 

"  Our  conclusions  are,  then,  that  while  the  clothing  of  children  should 
never  be  in  excess,  so  as  to  create  oppressive  warmth,  it  should  always 
be  sufficient  to  prevent  any  general  feeling  of  cold." 

"  We  do  not  yet  sufficiently  realize  the  truth  that  as,  in  this  life  of 
ours,  the  physical  underlies  the  mental,  the  mental  must  not  be  devel- 
oped at  the  expense  of  the  physical." 


353]  APPENDIX  353 

ALEXANDER  BAIN   (1818 ). 

For  references,  see  Card  Catalogue  and  Pool's  Index. 

1.  What  are  the  most  important  divisions  of  his  work  on  "Education 
as  a  Science?" 

2.  What  is  the  nature  and  educational  importance  of  his  work? 

3.  Compare  the  educational  views  of  Spencer  and  Bain. 

4.  Make  a  list  of  the  three  best  references  in  the  library  on  Bain  as 
an  educator. 

5.  Name   a   few   other   educational    writers   of   England    during   this 
period  who  have  won  international  fame. 

6.  What  were  some  of  the  more  important  changes  in  the  educational 
system  of  England  during  the  19th  century? 


354  Arrn^^mx  [354 


HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  AMtRICA 


A  BRIEF  BIBLIOGRAPHY  ON  THE  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  AMERICA 


Adams,  Francis.  The  Free  School  System  of  the  United  States.  Lon- 
don, 1875. 

Adams,  H.  B.  Thomas  Jefferson  and  the  University  of  Virginia.  U.  S. 
Bureau  Educa.  Circ.  Information,  No.i,  1888. 

Bacon,  Leonard.     Genesis  of  New  England  Churches. 

Barnard,  Henry.  American  Journal  of  Education.  31  volumes ;  and 
Index  published  by  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education, 
Washington,  D.  C.  Also,  American  Pedagogy — Education,  the 
School,  and  the  Teacher. 

Boone,  R.  G.     Education  in  the  United  States. 

Brown,  E.  E.     The  Making  of  Our  Middle  Schools. 

Campbell,  D.     The  Puritan  in  Holland,  England,  and  America. 

Clews,  Elsie  W.  Educational  Legislation  and  Administration  of  the 
Colonial  Governments. 

Coflfin,  Chas.  C.    Old  Times  in  the  Colonies. 

Drake,  S.  A.     The  Making  of  New  England. 

Earle,  Alice  M.     Customs  and  Fashions  in  New  England. 

Eggleston,  E.  The  Beginnings  of  a  Nation.  Also,  The  Transit  of  Civi- 
lization from  England  to  America. 

Fiske,  John.  The  Beginnings  of  New  England.  Also,  The  Dutch  and 
Quaker  Colonies  in  America. 

Ford,  Paul  L.    The  New  England  Primer. 

Gilman,  A.     History  of  the  American  People. 

Green,  J.  R.    History  of  the  English  People. 

Hart,  A.  B.     American  History  Told  by  Contemporaries. 

Johnson,  C.     The  Country  Schools  in  New  England. 

Kiddle,  Henry,  and  Schem,  Alex.  J.     Cyclopedia  of  Education. 

Lodge.  H.  C.     The  English  Colonies  in  America. 

History  of  the  English  Colonies  in  America. 

Mann,  Horace.     Life  and  Works.     5  volumes. 

Martin,  Geo.  H.     Evolution  of  Massafhusetts  Public  School  System. 

Meriwether,  C.  History  of  Higher  Education  in  South  Carolina.  U.  S. 
Bureau  Educa.  Circ.  Information,  No.  3,  1883. 

Powell,  L.  P.  History  of  Education  in  Delaware.  U.  S.  Bureau  Educa, 
Circ.  Information,  No.  3,  1893. 


355]  APPE^rDIX  355 

Randalls,  S.  S.     History  of  the  Common  School  System  of  the  State  of 

New  York  Since  1795. 
Shoup,  W.  J.     History  and  Science  of  Education. 
Smith,  Chas.  L.    History  of  Education  in  North  Carolina.    U.  S.  Bureau 

Educa.  Circ.  Information,  No.  2,  1888. 
Steiner,  B.  C.     History  of  Education  in  Maryland.     U.  S.  Bureau  Educa. 

Circ.   Information,   No.  2,   1894.     Also,  History  of   Education  in 

Connecticut.     U.  S.  Bureau  Educa.  Circ.  Information,  No.  2,  1893. 
Stockwell,  Thos.  B.     History  of  Public  Education  in  Rhode  Island. 
Tolman,  W.  H.     History  of  Higher  Education  in  Rhode  Island.     U.  S. 

Bureau  Educa.  Circ.  Information,  No.  i,  1894. 
Wickersham,  Jas.  P.     History  of  Education  in  Pennsylvania. 
Wightman,  Jos.  M.     Annals  of  the  Boston  Primary  School  Committee, 

1818-1855. 
Williams,  S.  G.     History  of  Modern  Education. 

For  a  more  complete  bibliography,  add  to  the  above  the  important 
histories  of  the  United  States,  cyclopedias,  state  educational  histories 
and  reports,  annual  reports  from  the  United  States  Commissioner  of 
Education,  circulars  of  information  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  pro- 
ceedings of  the  National  Educational  Association  and  the  American  In- 
stitute of  Instruction,  and  such  educational  periodicals  as  Education, 
School  Review,  and  Educational  Review.  The  following  bibliographies 
will  be  of  service  to  the  student  in  the  history  of  education :  Bibliog- 
raphy of  Education,  by  G.  S.  Hall  and  J.  M.  Mansfield,  1886;  Catalogue 
of  Pedagogical  Library,  Philadelphia,  by  Jas.  MacAlister,  1887 ;  Bib- 
liography of  Education,  by  W.  S.  Monroe,  1897 ;  Books  on  Education, 
in  the  Columbia  University  Libraries,  1901 ;  and  Bibliography  of  Cur- 
rent Educational  Literature,  by  J.  I.  Wyer  and  Isabel  E.  Lord,  as  pub- 
lished annually  since  1900  in  the  Educational  Review,  New  York  City, 
appearing  usually  in  the  June  number  of  each  year.  The  last  reference 
is  especially  valuable  on  account  of  its  careful  evaluation  of  most  of 
the  educational  literature  referred  to. 


356  APPENDIX  [356 

EARLY  COLONIAL  EDUCATION,  1607-1660. 

a.     Our     European     ancestors :     English,     Dutch.     French,     Spanish, 
Swedes,  etc. 

GENERAL    DIRECTION    FOR    STUDY. 

1.  Who  were  they? 

2.  Whence  did  they  come? 

3.  Where  did  they  settle? 

4.  General  intellectual  development  in  their  old  homes,  i.  e.,  educa- 
tional conditions,  including  schools,  educational  and  religious  ideals? 

5.  Class  of  people  who  came? 

6.  Object  in  coming,  whether  for  mere  adventure,  or  to  better  their 
social,  religious,  or  educational  condition  ? 

7.  How  did  their  new  environments  change  their  views  of  life? 

8.  What  provisions  did  they  make  for  education? 

9.  How  did  these  differ  from  the  educational  conditions  they  left? 

Puritans. 

Bacon,  L.     Genesis  of  New  England  Churches,  p.  67. 

Bancroft,    G.      History   of   the   United    States    (D.    Appleton    &    Co.), 
I  :224,  311. 

Bjnngton,  E.  H.     The   Puritan   in   England  and   New   England,  pp.  "jg, 
222-225,  249. 

Campbell,  D.     Puritan  in  Holland,  England  and  America. 

Coffin,  Chas.  C.     Old  Times  in  the  Colonies. 

Davis,  W.  T.     Who  were  the  Pilgrims?     Harper,  64:246. 

Doyle,  J.  A.     English  Colonies  in  America,  vol.  2,  chaps,  i.  2. 

Drake,  S.  A.     Making  of  New  England. 

Edwards,  T.     Pilgrims  and  Puritans.     Scrib.   Mo..   12:212. 

Ellis,  G.  E.     Puritan  Age,  etc.,  chaps.  3,  4,  5. 

An  English  Nation.     Harper,  66:706. 

Gilman,  A.     History  of  American  People,  pp.  91,  576  ff. 

Green,  J.  R.     History  of  the  English  People,  vol.  3,  chaps,  i,  2. 

Hart,  A.  B.     American  History  Told  by  Contemporaries  (Family  Life), 
I  :5i2. 

Hildreth,  R.     History  of  the  United  States,  vol.  I,  chaps.  6,  7. 

Lodge,  H.  C.     Short  History  of  English  Colonies  in  America,  pp.  344, 
436,  464  fif. 

Palfrey,  J.  G.     History  of  New  England. 

Stowell,  W.  H..  and  Wilson.  D.     History  of  Puritan  and  Pilgrim  Fath- 
ers, pp.  468,  475.  477,  480,  .485.  4S7-9,  497. 

Thwaites,  R.  G.     The  Colonies,  pp.  178-194. 

Winsor,  J.     Narrative  and  Critical  History  of  America,  3:240.  242,  281. 


357]  APPENDIX  357 

Cavaliers. 

Bancroft,  G.     History  of  the  United  States,  i  :84,  408. 
Coffin,  Chas.  C.     Old  Times  in  the  Colonies,  pp.  211-215. 

Cavaliers  in  America.     New  Eng.,  23:651. 
Cooke,  J.  E.     Virginia:  A  History  of  the  People,  pp.  i,  167  ff. 
Doyle,  J.  A.     English  Colonies  in  America,  i  :38i-395. 
Fiske,  J.     Beginning  of  New  England,  chaps,  i  and  4. 
Green,  J.  R.     History  of  the  English  People,  3  :58. 
Hildreth,  R.     History  of  the  United  States,  1:99,  204,  335,  509;  2:25. 
Ridpath,  J.  C.     History  of  the  United  States,  p.  85. 
Thwaites,  R.  G.     The  Colonies,  pp.  ii-iii. 
Winsor,  J.     Narrative  and  Critical  History  of  America,  vol.  3,  chs.  4,  5. 

"  I  have  a  .  .  .  thrice  seven  years'  experience  in  this  despicable,  but 
comfortable,  employment  of  teaching  Schoole.  .  .  .  But,  alas,  we  that 
wholly  undergo  the  burden  of  school-teaching,  can  tell  by  our  own  ex- 
perience how  laborious  it  is,  both  to  mind  and  body,  to  be  continually 
intent  upon  the  work,  and  how  irksome  it  is  (especially  to  a  man  of  quiet 
temper)  to  have  so  many  unwilling  provocations  into  passions ;  what 
good  parts  for  learning  and  right  qualifications  in  all  points  of  behavior 
are  required  of  us ;  how  small  our  yearly  stipend  is,  and  how  uncertain 
all  our  other  incomes  are.  Again,  we  call  to  mind  the  too  much  indul- 
gency  of  some  parents,  who  neither  love  to  blame  their  children's  un- 
towardness,  nor  suffer  the  Master  to  correct  it.  We  remember  their 
generall  ingratitude  for  the  Master's  well-doing,  and  their  open  clamour 
for  his  least  doing  amisse ;  we  observe  their  common  indiscretion  in 
wholly  imputing  the  Scholar's  lesse  profitting  to  the  Master's  more 
neglect,  and  their  own  happy  thriving  to  their  own  onely  towardliness ; 
not  to  mention  their  fond  ambition  in  hastening  them  too  fast.  Besides, 
small  account  which  the  vulgar  have,  the  too  censorious  eye  which  the 
more  judicious  cast,  and  the  slight  regard  which  our  Academicians  (for 
the  most  part)  carry  toward  the  poor  School-Master  makes  us  some- 
times judge  our  calling  (as  many  do)  too  mean  for  a  scholar  to  under- 
take or  desire  to  stick  to  too  many  years."  A  New  Discovery  of  the 
Old  Art  of  Teaching  Schoole.     By  Charles  Hoole.     London,  1659. 

"  If  any  christian,  so  called,  .  .  .  shall  contemptuously  behave  himself 
toward  the  word  preached,  or  ye  messengers  thereof  called  to  dispence 
ye  same,  in  any  congregation,  ...  or,  like  a  sonn  of  Corah,  cast  upon 
his  true  doctrine,  or  himself,  any  reproach,  .  .  .  shall  for  ye  first  scan- 
dole  be  convented  .  .  .  and  bound  to  their  good  behaviour;  and  if  a 
second  time  they  breake  forth  into  ye  like  contemptuous  carriages,  either 
to  pay  £5  to  ye  publike  treasury,  or  to  stand  two  houres  openly  upon  a 
block  4  foote  high,  on  a  lecture  day,  with  a  pap  fixed  on  the  breast,  with 


358  APPENDIX  [358 

this,  "A  WANTON  GOSPELLER,"  written  in  capitall  letters,  yt 
others  may  fear  and  be  ashamed  of  breaking  out  into  the  Hke  wicked- 
ness."    Records  of  Massachusetts.  II:i79  (4  Nov.,  1646). 

Quakers. 
Adams,  C.  F.     Three  Episodes  in  Massachusetts  History   (see  index). 
Applegarth,  A.  G.     Quakers  in  Pennsylvania.     Mag.  Am.  Hist.,  28:353. 
Arnold,  S.  G.     History  of  the  State  of  Rhode  Island,  1:264-270;  2:85, 

137,  510. 
Bancroft,  G.     History  of  the  United  States,  i  :528. 
Clarkson,  T.     Portraiture  of  Quakerism.     Edinb.  Rev.,  10,  85. 
Coffin,  Chas.  C.     Old  Times  in  the  Colonies,  p.  216. 
Fiske,  J.     Beginnings  of  New  England,  p.  177  flf. 
Garrison,  W.   P.     Some  Primitive  Quakers.     Nation,  5 :392. 
Gilman,  A.     History  of  American  People,  pp.  129,  152-162. 
Greene,  G.  W.     A  Short  History  of  Rhode  Island  (see  index). 
Hildreth,  R.     History  of  the  United  States,  i  :339,  453,  474,  475. 
Lodge,  H.  C.     English  Colonies  in  America  (see  index). 
Modern  Quakerism.     Edinb.  Rev.,  87  :503. 
Winsor,  J.     Memorial  History  of  Boston,  i  :i79,  195. 

Narrative   and    Critical    History   of   America,    vol.    3    (see 
index). 

Dutch. 
Bancroft,  G.     History  of  the  United  States,  1:475;  4:i30- 
Barnard,  H.     Development  of  Public  Instruction  in  Holland.     Am.  Jour. 
Educa.,  8:595;  14:495,  641. 
Scheme  of  Education  by  Synod  of  Dort,  1618.     Am.  Jour. 
Educa.,  5  -.77. 
Campbell,  D.     Puritan  in  Holland,  England  and  America,  1:32,  158;  2: 

Z2,7  ff--  466. 
Coffin,  Chas.  C.     Old  Times  in  the  Colonies,  pp.  42,  195,  224. 
Drake,  S.  A.     The  Making  of  Virginia  and  Middle  Colonies,  p.  108  Q.. 
Draper,  A.  S.     Public  School  Pioneering  in  New  York.     Educa.  Rev., 

3:313- 
Eggleston,  E.     The  Beginnings  of  a  Nation. 

Migrations  of  American  Colonists  :  Dutch.     Cent.,  3 :724. 
Fiske,  J.     Dutch  and  Quaker  Colonies  in  America,  chaps,  i,  2,  8,  15. 
Griffis,  W.  E.     Dutch   Influence  in  New  England.     Harper,  88:213. 

Leyden  and  Its  Archives.     Nation,  55:143. 
Kiddle  &  Schem.     Cyclopedia  of  Education.     See  Netherlands. 
Lamb,  Mrs.  M.  J.     History  of  the  City  of  New  York. 
Lodge,  H.   C.     A   Short   History  of  the  English  Colonies  in   America 
(see  index). 


359]  APPENDIX  359 

Martin,  G.  H.     Public  School  Pioneering.     Educa.  Rev.,  5:232,  345,  406. 
Motley,  J.  L.     History  of  the  United  Netherlands. 

Life  and  Death  of  John  of  Barneveld,  2:405, 
O'Callaghan,  F.  B.     Documentary  History  of  New  York. 
Roberts,  E.  H.     New  York,  vol.  i,  chaps.  2-6. 
Thwaites,  R.  G.    The  Colonies,  pp.  50,  195  ff. 

Huguenots. 
Arnold,  S.  C.     History  of  the  State  of  Rhode  Island  (see  index). 
Baird,  C.     Huguenot  Emigration  to  America   (a  review).     Atlan.  Mo., 

55  :843. 
Bancroft,  Geo.     History  of  the  United  States,  i  :432. 
Coffin,  Chas.  C.     Old  Times  in  the  Colonies,  pp.  30,  148,  341. 
Carlyle,  Thos.     French  Revolution. 
Guizot,  F.  P.  G.     History  of  France. 
Graves,  H.     The  Huguenots  in  New  England.     New  Eng.  Mag.,  11:497 

(New  Series,  1894-1895). 
Jackson,  S.  M.     Huguenots.     Johnson's  Cyclopedia,  4:400. 
Kitchin,  G.  W.     History  of  France,  3:1  ff.,  78,  182. 
Lawrence,  E.     Huguenots.     Harper,  41 :8oi. 
Ramsey,  D.     History  of  South  Carolina,  p.  23. 

Taine,  H.  A.     Ancient   Regime    (transl.    by   J.    Durand),   pp.   62,    135, 
209,  287. 
The  Huguenot  Captain.     Blackw.,  38:790;  39:17- 
Tocqueville,  A.     Old  Regime  and  the  Revolution. 
Thwaites,  R.  G.     The  Colonies  (see  index). 
Van  Laun,  H.     French  Revolutionary  Epoch. 
Weiss,  G.     French  Protestant  Refugees   (a  review).     Blackw.,  74:1. 

SUGGESTIONS    AND   QUESTIONS. 

Observe  in  your  study  the  questions  and  suggestions  as  offered  in  the 
first  outline  on  American  education. 

I.  Whence  originated  our  common  school  system? 

In  addition  to  the  references  given  above,  see :  Am.  Jour.  Educa., 
10:32.  E.  Ingle,  in  Johns  Hopkins  Studies  in  Hist,  and  Pol.  Sci.,  3: 
116  ff.  Also  for  Scotch-Irish  Ancestors:  Bancroft,  Hist,  of  the  U.  S., 
1 :43i,  500;  2:266;  3  :28.  J.  Palfrey,  Hist,  of  the  N.  E.,  I,  p.  8;  cf.  pref., 
II,  389;  IV,  table  of  contents,  see  p.  461.  Also  German  ancestry:  Ban- 
croft, Hist,  of  the  U.  S.,  2  :265.     Kiddle  &  Schem,  Cyc.  of  Educa.,  p.  361. 


36q  appendix  [360 

EDUCATION  DURING  COLONIAL  PERIOD. 

1.  What  provisions  were  made  for  elementary  education  in  the  dif- 
ferent colonies? 

2.  To  what  extent  were  these  early  schools  free? 

3.  What  were  the  subjects  of  study,  the  kind  of  text-books,  and  the 
nature  of  the  discipline  and  instruction  ? 

4.  How  did  the  schools  of  the  colonies  differ  from  those  of  Europe 
during  the  same  period? 

5.  Who  were  the  teachers?     How  esteemed?     How  prepared?     How 
supported  ? 

6.  Compare   the  provisions   for  education   among  the  various   settle- 
ments. 

7.  What  other  sources  of  education  had  the  colonists? 

New  England. 

Adams,  C.  F.     Three  Episodes  of  Massachusetts  History,  2  '.764,  800. 

Bacon,  Leonard.     Genesis  of  New  England  Churches,  p.  306  ff. 

Bailey,  Sarah  L.     Historical  Sketches  of  Andover,  p.  i. 

Barry,  J.  S.     History  of  Massachusetts  Colonial  Period,  chaps.  2-7. 

Biography  of  Ezekiel  Cheever.     Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  i  :297. 

Boone,  R.  G.     Education  in  the  United  States,  p.  14. 

Dexter,  F.  B.  Influence  of  English  University.  Mass,  Hist.  Soc.  Proc, 
17 :340. 

Dexter,  H.  M.  As  to  Roger  Williams  and  His  Banishment  from  the 
Massachusetts  Plantation,  with  a  few  further  words  concerning 
the  Baptists,  Quakers,  and  Religious  Liberty. 

Drake,  S.  A.     Making  of  New  England. 

Earle,  Alice.     Customs  and  Fashions  in  New  England. 

Eggleston,  E.     Transit  of  Civilization  from  England  to  America,  chaps. 
I,  3  (see  topics  on  margins  of  pages),  4,  5. 
Early  New  England  Schools  and  Teachers.     Am.  Jour. 
Educa.,  30:7^,7. 

Fiske,  John.     The  Beginnings  of  New  England,  p.  151. 

Goodwin,  J.  A.  The  Pilgrims'  Republic  (Schools  of  New  England), 
pp.  494-497- 

Hart,  A.  B.  American  History  Told  by  Contemporaries.  New  Eng- 
land Life,  I  1467.  Connecticut  Laws,  i  :493.  Intellectual  Life  of 
the  Colonies,  2  :255-2go. 

Hawthorne,  N.     Wonder-Book  and  Tanglewood  Tales,  p.  505. 

Kiddle  &  Schem.     Cyclopedia  of  Education — Mass.,  N.  H.,  Conn.,  R.  L 

Lodge,  H.  C.     History  of  the  English  Colonies  in  America,  p.  464. 

Mann,  Horace.     Life  and  Works,  2:273;  4:106. 


36 1]  APPENDIX  361 

Martin,  Geo.  H.     Evolution  of  Massachusetts  Public  School  System. 
New    Haven    Early    Educational    Movements.      Am. 
Jour.  Educa.,  11:328;  28:  286. 
Tyler,  M.  C.     History  of  American  Literature,  i  :98  ff. 

Periodicals  on  New  England. 
Adams,  H.     Palfrey's  History  of  New  England,  1689-1740.     North  Am. 

Rev.,  121  :473. 
Beane,  C.     Johnson's  Wonder-Working  Providence  in  New  England. 

North  Am.  Rev.,  106:319. 
Common  Schools  in  Rhode  Island.     North  Am.  Rev.,  67 :240. 
Cram,  Sarah  E.     Leaves  from  an  Old  Church  Record.     New  Eng.  Mag., 

16:309  (new  series,  1897). 
Eggleston,  E.     Planting  of  New  England.     Cent.,  3  :350. 
Fathers  of  New  England.     Edinb.  Rev..  102:542;  North  Am.  Rev.,  68:82. 
Fiske,  John.     New   England  in  the  Colonial   Period.     Harper,  66:111. 
Kigginson,  T.  W.     Puritan  Minister.     Atlan.  Mo.,  12:265. 
Hill,  A.  L.      Travel  in  Early  New  England.      New  Eng.  Mag.,   17:83 

(new  series,  1897-1898). 
Mead,  E.  D.      Why  Did  the  Pilgrims  Come  to  New  England?      New 

Englander,  41  :yii. 
Mowry,  W.  A.     The  First  American  Public  School.     Educa.,  21 :535. 
New   England    Primer.     Am.   Jour.    Educa.,   30:379;    Bookman,   4:122; 

Dial,  24:139;  Nation,  66:309;  Am.  Hist.  Rev.,  3:372;  Mag.  Am. 

Hist.,  20:148  (1888). 
New  England  in  the  17th  Century.     Cath.  World,  12:702. 
O'Callaghan,  Rev.   P.     New   England  and  the  Formation  of  America. 

Cath.  World,  64  :344. 
Palmar,  R.     Puritan  Clergy  of  New  England.     New  Englander,  14 :497. 
Palfrey,  J.  G.     New  England  Character.     North  Am.  Rev.,  44:237. 
Phipps,  A.  J.     High  Schools  of  Massachusetts,   Origin  and   Progress. 

Fortieth  Annual  Report  of  Secretary  of  Board  of  Education  for 

Massachusetts,  1875-1876,  B,  p.  34. 
Poole,  W.  F.     Witchcraft  and  Cotton  Mather.     North  Am.  Rev.,  108: 

Z2,7- 
Slade,  W.  A.     Two  Champions  of  Religious  Liberty.     New  Eng.  Mag., 

17:342  (new  series,  1897-1898). 
Small,  W.  H.     Girls  in  Colonial  Schools.     Educa..  22:532. 

Ye  Colonial  School  Wood  Tax.     Educa.,  21 :592. 
Warner,  O.     Colleges.     Fortieth  Annual  Report  of  Secretary  of  Board 

of  Education   for  Massachusetts,    1875-1876,   C,  p.  48.     See  also 

Report  on  Academies  and  Normal  Schools. 


362  APPENDIX  [362 

Middle  Colonies. 

Answer  to  Request  Concerning  College  of  New  York.     In  Documents 

Relating  to  the  Colonial  History  of  the  State  of  New  York,  8:296. 
Boone,  R.  G.     Education  in  the  United  States,  pp.  7,  53-58. 
Brantly,  W.  T.      English  in  Maryland,   1632-1691.      In  Winsor's  Nar. 

and  Crit.  Hist.,  3:517. 
Fernow,  B.     Middle  Colonies  in  Winsor's  Nar.  and  Crit.  Hist.,  5:189. 
Fiske,  J.     Middle  Colonies  before  the  Revolution.     Harper,  66:913. 
Hart,  A.  B.     American  History  Told  by  Contemporaries :  Life  in  the 

Middle  Colonies,  i  :576-5go. 
Lamb,  M.  J.     History  of  the  City  of  New  York,   i  :72,   123,  124,   158, 

181,  231. 
O'Callaghan,  E.  B.     History  of  New  Netherlands. 
Stone,  F.  D.     Founding  of  Pennsylvania.     In  Winsor's  Nar.  and  Crit. 

Hist,  3  :469. 

Extract  from  Collections  of  Massachusetts  Historical  Society  (2d 
series),  8:66. 

"  Concerning  the  civilizing  and  instructing  of  the  Indians  in  the 
knowledge  of  God  and  human  learning,  there  is  a  small  college  of  fab- 
rick  of  brick  erected  at  Cambridge,  peculiarly  appropriate  to  the  In- 
dians, which  was  built  on  the  account,  and  by  the  order  of  the  corpora- 
tion. There  are  eight  Indian  youths  (one  whereof  is  in  the  college  and 
ready  to  commence  bachellor  of  arts),  besides  another  in  like  capacity, 
a  few  months  since,  with  several  English,  murdered  by  the  Indians  at 
Nantucket,  and  at  other  schools,  some  ready  to  come  into  the  college, 
all  which  are  maintained  on  the  stock's  account  and  charge." 

"Touching  other  schools,  there  is  by  law  enjoined  a  school  to  be  kept 
and  maintained  in  every  town,  and  for  such  towns  as  are  of  100  fami- 
lies they  are  required  to  have  a  grammar  school.  The  country  is  gener- 
ally well  provided  of  schools." 

"There  are  six  towns  of  Indians  within  this  jurisdiction,  who  profess 
Christian  religion,  who  have  lands  and  townships  set  forth  and  appro- 
priated to  them  by  this  court.  There  are  also  persons  appointed  to 
govern  and  instruct  them  in  civility  and  religion,  and  to  decide  contro- 
versies amongst  them.  The  Sabbath  is  constantly  kept  by  them,  and 
they  all  attend  to  the  publick  worship  of  God.  They  have  schools  to 
teach  their  children  to  read  and  write  in  several  of  their  towns,  and 
many  of  their  youth,  and  some  older  persons,  can  read  and  write.  If 
you  please  to  be  an  eye  or  ear  witness  of  the  truth  of  these  things,  we 
have  appointed  the  persons  that  attend  to  this  work  to  wait  upon  you 
and  show  you  their  towns  and  manners." 

"  May  II,  1665.  Edward  Rawson,  Sec'y" 


363]  APPENDIX  363 

Southern  Colonies. 
Boone,  R.  G.     Education  in  the  United  States,  p.  58. 
Campbell,  D.     The  Puritan  in  Holland,  England  and  America,  1 :32. 
Cooke,  J.  E.     Virginia :  History  of  the  People. 
Doyle,  G.  A.     English  Colonies  in  America,  i  :26g,  391. 
Drake,  S.  A.     The  Making  of  Virginia  and  Middle  Colonies,  i  fF. 
Fiske,  J.     Old  Virginia  and  Her  Neighbors,  i  :  ch.  7;  2:  chs.  14  and  15. 

Maryland  and  the  Far  South.     Harper,  66:414. 
Gambrall,  T.  C.     History  of  Early  Maryland,  p.  128,  138. 
Gayarre,  C.     History  of  Louisiana. 
Hart,   A.    B.      American   History   Told   by   Contemporaries :    Southern 

Colonial  Life,  i  :285. 
Hawks,  F.  L.     History  of  North  Carolina. 
Ingle,   E.     Local   Institutions  of  Virginia.     Johns   Hopkins   Studies   in 

Hist,  and  Pol.  Sci.,  3:114,  116  flf. 
Latana,  J.  H.     Puritan  Supremacy  in  Virginia  and  Maryland.    Johns 

Hopkins  Studies  in  Hist,  and  Pol.  Sci.,  13:171   (Art.  No.  III). 
Mcllwaine,  H.  R.     Religious  Controversy  in  Virginia.     Johns  Hopkins 

Studies  in  Hist,  and  Pol.  Sci.,  12:175  (Art.  No.  IV). 
Mayer,  F.  B.     Old  Maryland  Manners.     Scribners,  17:315. 

New    England's    First   Fruits.      Harvard    College.      Old 
South  Leaflets,  No.  51,  vol.  3. 
Phelan,  James.     History  of  Tennessee. 
Ramage,  B.  J.     Local  Government  and  Free  Schools  in  South  Carolina. 

Johns  Hopkins  Studies  in  Hist,  and  Pol.  Sci.,  Vol.  i.  No.  XII. 
Ramsey,  D.     History  of  South  Carolina. 
Scharf,  J.  T.     The  Chronicles  of  Baltimore. 
Shaler,  N.  S.     Kentucky,  a  Pioneer  Commonwealth. 

Virginia  and  New  England.     Atlan.  Mo.,  6:700. 
Thwaites,  R.  G.     The  Colonies,  pp.  64  ff.,  258  ff.,  280  ff. 
Winsor,  J.     Maryland  and  Virginia.     In   Nar.   and   Crit.   Hist.,  5 :259. 

The  Carolinas,  p.  285  (W.  J.  Rivers). 

COLONIAL  COLLEGES   AND   ACADEMIES. 

.Adams,  H.  B.  Jefferson  and  the  University  of  Virginia.  U.  S.  Bureau 
of  Education  Circular  of  Information,  1888,  Circular 
I.  Education  in  North  Carolina;  same,  Circ.  2. 
Higher  Education  in  South  Carolina ;  same,  Circ.  3. 
Education  in  Georgia ;  same,  Circ.  4. 

Academies.  Dictionary  of  U.  S.  Hist,  (edited  by  J.  F. 
Jameson),  p.  6. 

Academies  and  Other  Schools  in  New  England  and  New 
York.  Quarterly  Register  and  Journal  of  the  Amer- 
ican Education  Society,  2:231-237. 


364  APPENDIX  [364 

Acadamies,    High    Schools    and    Gymnasia.      Quarterly 
Register  of  the  American   Education   Society,  3:288- 
292. 
Academy,  The  Old  Village.     Atlan.  Mo.,  72:853-855. 
Incorporate    Academies    and    Seminaries.       Am.    Jour. 

Educa.,  30:760-808. 
The  Old  Academies  (N.  Atlan.).     New  Englander,  44: 

104. 
Phillips'  Academy.     Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  6:56,  75. 
The  American  Educational  Society.    Am.  Jour.  Educa., 
14:367. 
Adams,  Chas.  Kendall.     Ought  the  State  to  Provide  for  Higher  Edu- 
cation ?     New  Englander,  27  :362-384. 
Review  of  Ten  Brook's  American  State  Uni- 
versities, Their  Origin  and  Progress.     North 
Am.  Rev.,  121 :36s-4o8. 
Beardsley,  W.  A.     First  Attempt  to  Found  an  American  College.     Mag. 

Am.  Hist.,  29:367. 
Campbell,  C.     Virginia,  p.  158. 

Colleges.     Dictionary  of  U.  S.  Hist,    (edited  by  J.  F. 
Jameson),  p.  146. 
History    of    Various    Colleges.       Am.    Jour.    Educa.,    5 : 
521,   541,   715;   7:467;   9:129;   24:146,    152;   27:56,   58, 
129;   30:737,    753-     Harper,   69:715,   813.      New    Eng- 
lander, 36 :445. 
Common    Schools    and    Public    Instruction.      Am.    Jour. 
Educa.,  24 :225. 
Coniey,  A.  M.     Growth  of  New  England  Colleges.     Educa.  Rev.,  i  :209. 
Cooper,  J.  C.     Student  in  College.     New  Englander,  37  :6io. 
Davis,  A.  M.     Search  for  a  Lost  Building.     Atlan.  Mo.,  66:  211. 
Gray,  J.  C.      Wayland  on  Colleges  in  the  United  States.      North  Am. 

Rev.,  72:60. 
Hammond,  Rev.  Chas.     Common  Schools  and  Higher  Seminaries.    New 
Englander,  6:313. 
History  of  Philadelphia  Academy.     Am.  Jour. 

Educa.,  27:473. 
New  England  Academies  and  Classical  Schools. 
Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  16 :403 ;  also  Rept.  U.  S. 
Comr.  Educa.,  1867-1868,  pp.  403-429. 
Ten  Brook,  Andrew.     American  State  Universities :  Their  Origin  and 

Progress.     Chapters  i,  2,  3. 
Thwing,  C.  F.     Increasing  Cost  of  College  Education.     Forum,  18:630. 
Ticknor,  G.     Free  Schools  of  New  England.     North  Am.  Rev.,  19:448. 
See  also  Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  i  :297. 


365  J 


APPENDIX 


365 


See  Encyclopedia  and  Index  to  Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  for  additional  ref- 
erences. 

Colleges  Founded  Prior  to  1800. 


I. 

Harvard, 

Massachusetts, 

1637. 

Cong. 

2. 

William  and  Mary, 

Virginia, 

1693, 

Episc. 

3. 

Yale, 

Connecticut, 

1701, 

Cong. 

4- 

Princeton, 

New  Jersey, 

1746, 

Presby. 

5. 

University  of  Pennsylvania, 

Pennsylvania, 

1749, 

Non-sec. 

6. 

Columbia, 

New  York, 

1754, 

Episc. 

7- 

Brown, 

Rhode  Island, 

1764, 

Bap. 

8. 

Dartmouth 

New  Hampshire, 

1769, 

Cong. 

9- 

Queen's, 

New  Jersey, 

1770, 

Ref. 

10. 

Hampden-Sydney, 

Virginia, 

1776, 

Presby. 

II. 

Washington  and  Lee, 

Virginia, 

1782, 

Non-sec. 

12. 

Washington  University, 

Maryland, 

1782, 

Non-sec. 

13. 

Dickinson, 

Pennsylvania, 

1783, 

Meth-Episc, 

14. 

St.  John's, 

Maryland, 

1784, 

Non-sec. 

15. 

Nashville, 

Tennessee, 

1785, 

Non-sec. 

16. 

University  of  North  Carolina, 

,  North  Carolina, 

1789, 

Non-sec. 

17. 

Georgetown, 

Dis.  of  Columbia 

,  1799, 

R.  Cath. 

18. 

University  of  Vermont, 

Vermont, 

1791, 

Non-sec. 

19. 

University  of  Tennessee, 

Tennessee, 

1792, 

Non-sec. 

20. 

Williams, 

Massachusetts, 

^79Z, 

Cong. 

21. 

Bowdoin, 

Maine, 

1794, 

Non-sec. 

22. 

Union, 

New  York, 

I79S> 

Non-sec. 

22. 

Middlebury, 

Vermont, 

1795. 

Cong. 

24. 

Frederick  College, 

Maryland, 

1796, 

Non-sec. 

1.  What  were  some  of  the  more  important  early  academies? 

2.  Do  any  of  these  continue  to  prosper? 

3.  Why  have  academies  failed  to  prosper  in  the  West? 

4.  What  were  the  principal  influences  that  led  to  the  establishment  of 
the  above  colleges? 

5.  Through  what  means  were  they  established? 

6.  How  were  they  supported? 

7.  The  class  of  students ;  the  kind  of  work  offered ;  the  nature  of  the 
discipline? 

8.  What  is  the  present  condition  of  the  above  colleges? 

"  After  God  had  carried  us  safe  to  New  England,  and  wee  had  builded 
our  houses,  provided  necessaries  for  our  livelihood,  reared  convenient 
places  for  God's  worship,  and  settled  the  Civill  Government:  One  of  the 
next  things  we  longed  for,  and  looked  after,  was  to  advance  Learning, 
and  perpetuate  it  to  our  Posterity,  dreading  to  leave  an  illiterate  Min- 


366  APPENDIX  [366 

istry  to  the  Churches  when  our  present  Ministers  shall  lie  in  Dust.  And 
as  wee  were  thinking  and  consulting  how  to  effect  this  great  Work,  it 
pleased  God  to  stir  up  the  heart  of  one  Mr.  Harvard  (a  godly  Gentle- 
man and  a  lover  of  Learning,  there  living  amongst  us)  to  give  the  one- 
half  of  his  estate  (it  being  in  all  about  1700  lbs.)  toward  the  erecting 
of  a  College  and  all  his  Library.  After  him  another  gave  300  lbs. ; 
others  after  them  cast  in  more,  and  the  publique  hand  of  the  state  added 
the  rest."  From  New  England's  First  Fruits:  Old  South  Leaflets, 
No.  51. 


367]  APPENDIX  367 

PERIOD  OF  REORGANIZATION  AND  EDUCATIONAL 
FORMATION,  1790-1840. 

SUGGESTION    OF   TOPICS. 

Rapid  growth  in  population ;  in  industries ;  in  education ;  in  period- 
icals. 

Change  in  ideals. 

The  influence  of  religion  on  education  becoming  a  less  prominent 
factor,  while  utility  and  education  for  its  own  sake  increase  in  im- 
portance. 

Growth  of  the  idea  that  education  is  the  birth-right  of  every  indi- 
vidual. 

Sources  of  school  funds  and  how  controlled. 

Beginning  of  a  permanent  school  fund ;  how  obtained  and  how  dis- 
tributed. 

Beginning  of  State  supervision ;  of  county  and  city  supervision. 

Nature  and  conditions  of  the  schools. 

Ideas  of  education  as  expressed  by  some  of  the  leading  men  of  the 
time. 

Barnard,  H.     American  Pedagogy,  pp.  305-335. 

Benton,   T.    H.    (editor).      Abridgement    of   the    Debates   of   Congress 

(1789-1856),  10:238,  581. 
Boston    Latin    School    (E.    Everett).      Am. 
Jour.     Educa.,    7:344;     12:356;     (W.     B. 
Fowle)   13:745;  12:529;  s.  a.,  27:65.     The 
Girls'  High  School,  12  :435  ;  13  :243. 
Brown,  E.  E.     The  Making  of  Our  Middle  Schools,  chaps.  10  and  11. 
Burstall,  S.  A.     Education  of  Girls  in  America.     Introd.  and  chap.  i. 

The  English  and  the  Latin  in  High  Schools.     Boston 

Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  19:484,  487. 
Constitutional  and  Statutory  Provisions  for  Education. 
Am.   Jour.    Educa.,   24:264    (see   also  225   fif.),   697; 
17:81. 
Clews,   Elsie   W.     Educational   Legislation   and   Administration   of  the 

Colonial  Government. 
Earle,  Alice  M.     Child  Life  in  Colonial  Days. 

Home  and  School  Life  as  They  Were  in   1779-1802. 
Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  26:225. 
Fowle,  W.  B.    History  of  the  Boston  Public  Schools.    Am.  Jour.  Educa., 

5:325;  10:716. 
Johnson,  C.     The  Country  Schools  in  New  England,  chap.  I. 
Kiddle  &  Schem.     See  Early  Education  under  the  heads  of  the  differ- 
ent States. 


368  APPENDIX  [368 

McMaster,  J.  B.     The  Common  Schools  in  the  First  Century.     In  His- 
tory of  the  People  of  the  United  States,  5  :Z4?>- 
Mann.  Horace.     Life  and  Works,  4:1-16,  105-141,  341-389. 
Martin,  G.  H.     Evolution  of  the  Massachusetts  Public  School  System, 
chaps.  3  and  4. 
Origin    of    the    Boston    Primary    Schools.      Am.    Jour. 
Educa.,  28  '.796. 
Mayo,  Rev.  A.  D.     Public   Schools    During  the   Colonial   and   Revolu- 
tionary   Periods    in    the   United    States.      Report 
U.  S.  Comr.  Educa.,  1893-1894,  i  :639-738. 
The  American  Common  School  in  New  York,  New 
Jersey  and   Pennsylvania   During  the  First   Half 
Century  of  the   Republic.     Report   U.   S.    Comr. 
Educa.,  1895-1896,  1 :2i9-266. 
The   American    Common    School    in   the    Southern 
States  During  the  First  Half  Century  of  the  Re- 
public,  1790-1840.     Report   U.   S.   Comr.   Educa., 
1895-1896,  I :267-338. 
Horace  Mann  and  the  Great  Revival  of  the  Amer- 
ican  Common   School,   1830-1850.     Report  U.   S. 
Comr.   Educa.,   1896-1897,   i  :7i5-767. 
The  Organization  and  Reconstruction  of  State  Sys- 
tems of  Common  School  Education  in  the  North 
Atlantic  States,   1830-1865.     Report  U.  S.  Comr. 
Educa.,   1897-1898,   1 :355-486. 
Peabody,  Elizabeth  P.     A  Record  of  Mr.  Alcott's  School :  Exemplify- 
ing the  Principles  and  Methods  of  Moral  Culture. 
Philbrick,  John  D.     City  School  Systems  in  the  United   States.     Circ 

Inform.  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  No.  i,  1885. 
Porter,  Noah.     American  Colleges  and  the  American  Public,  chap.  12. 
Reminiscences  of  the  Schools  in  the  Different  States  at 
the  Close  of  the  i8th  Century,  by  different  writers. 
Am.   Jour.   Educa.,    1:307;    13:123,   y^J ;    16:109,    126, 
738;    17:185,   555;   26:195,   209;   27:282;   28:145,   157, 
205,  257;  30:581. 
Ross,  G.  W.     The  School  Systems  of  Ontario,  chap.  i. 

Roxbury  Free  School.     Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  27:121-126. 
Shoup.  W.  J.     History  and  Science  of  Education,  p.  274. 

The  Development  of  State  Education.     In  the  U.  S.  Cir- 
cular of  Information.  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  No. 
I,  1890,  chap.  I. 
Williams,  S.  G.     History  of  Modern  Education,  p.  347  ff. 


369]  APPENDIX  369 

Franklin. 
Abbott,  J.     Early  and  Private  Life  of  Franklin.     Harper,  4:145,  289. 
Advice  to  His  Daughter.     Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  27:733. 
Advice  to  Young  Tradesmen.     Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  28:811. 
Correspondence  with   Dr.   S.  Johnson.     Am.  Jour.   Educa., 

27  :^66. 
Education  and  Educational  Work.     Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  27 : 

401  ;  28  1809. 
Passages  from  His  Autobiography.     Lib.  of  Am.  Lit.,  3 :3. 
Poor  Richard's  Maxims.     Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  23:249;  28:810. 
Morse,  J.  T.     Benjamin  Franklin. 

Thorpe,  F.  N.     Benjamin  Franklin  and  the  University  of  Pennsylvania. 
Circ.  of  Inform.  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Educa.,  No.  2,  1892. 

Washington. 
Adams,  H.  B.     College  of  William  and  Mary.     Circ.  of  Inform.  U.  S. 
Bureau  of  Educa.,  No.  i,  1887,  p.  34. 
Educational  Views  and  Works  of  Washington.      Am. 
Jour.  Educa.,  17:42;  28:306,  801. 
Ford,  P.     The  True  George  Washington,  p.  60. 
Washington,  George.     Letters  of.     In  Lib.  of  Am.  Lit.,  3:146. 
Wa<;hington's  Plan  for  a  National  University.     Johns  Hopkins  Studies 
in  Hist,  and  Pol.  Sci.,  3:55.  79.  93. 

Jefferson. 

Adams,  H.  B.     History  of  the  United  States.  1:185,  191;  3:346;  4:365- 
College  of  William  and  Mary.     Circ.  of  Inform.  U.  S. 

Bureau  of  Educa.,  No.  i,  1887,  p.  36. 
Thomas  Jefferson  and  the  University  of  Virginia.     Circ. 

of  Inform.  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Educa.,  No.  i,  1S88. 
Memoir  and  Educational  Views  of  Thomas  Jefferson. 
Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  27:513,  533. 
Hale.  E.  E.     Jefferson  and  the  Young  Nation.     Outlook,  70:320. 
Hildreth.  R.     History  of  the  United  States,  5:419;  6:138  ff. 
Jefferson,  Thos.     Passages  from  his  Autobiography.     Lib.  of  Am.  Lit., 
3 :265. 
The  Patriot,  i  :7i,  88.  92. 
Mor.sc,  J.  T.     Thomas  Jefferson,  338  ff. 

Proposed   National   University.      Am.   Jour.   Educa.,   17: 
43 :  28  :307. 
Nason.    C.    D.      Jefferson    and    Washington    on    National    Education. 

Educa.,  19:157- 
Parton.  J.     College  Days  of  Jefferson.     Atlan.  Mo.,  29:16. 


3/0  APPENDIX  [370 

Powell,  E.  P.     A  Study  of  JelTerson.     Arena,  3:712. 
Schouler,  J.     History  of  United  States  of  America  (revised  edition),  2: 
222-229,  285-286 :  3  :233  ;  6 :336. 

Noah  Webster. 
Harris,  W.  T.     Education  in  the  United  States.     In   Shaler's  Hist,  of 

the  U.  S.,  2:316. 
MciVlasters,  J.  B.     History  of  the  United  States,  x  -.76,  428,  430. 

Schools  As  They  Were  Sixty  Years  Ago.    Am.  Jour. 

Educa.,     13:123;    24:159;    26:195,    200.      (N.    B. 

There  are  two  pages  numbered  195  in  vol.  26 ;  also 

two  numbered  200;  take  second  in  each  case.) 

Webster,  Noah.     Letter  to  John  Pickering  on  Vocabulary.     North  Am. 

Rev.,  5  :82. 

Woman's  Education  in  the  Last  Century.     Lib.  of  Am. 

Lit.,  4:146. 
Text-Books  by.     Am.  Jour.  Educa..   15:569. 

1.  Why  are  the  above  names  especially  significant  to  students  of  the 
history  of  education? 

2.  What  other  persons  of  this  period  might  well  be  added  to  the  list? 

3.  What  new  educational  ideas  were  presented  by  Webster? 

Extracts  Slwu-ing  the  Opinions  of  Washington  and  Others  Concerning 

Education. 

"Promote,  as  an  object  of  primary  importance,  institutions  for  the 
general  diffusion  of  knowledge.  ...  In  proportion  as  the  structure  of 
government  gives  force  to  public  opinion,  it  is  essential  that  public 
opinion  be  enlightened."     George  Washington,  Farewell  Address. 

"  I  look  to  the  diffusion  of  light  and  education  as  the  resources  most 
to  be  relied  upon  for  ameliorating  the  condition,  promoting  the  virtue, 
and  advancing  the  happiness  of  man.  ...  A  system  of  general  instruc- 
tion, which  shall  reach  every  description  of  our  citizens,  from  the  rich- 
est to  the  poorest,  as  it  was  the  earliest,  so  shall  it  be  the  latest,  of  all 
concerns  in  which  I  shall  permit  myself  to  take  an  interest."  Thomas 
Jefferson. 

"  Learned  institutions  ought  to  be  the  favorite  objects  with  every  free 
people:  they  throw  that  light  over  the  public  mind  which  is  the  best 
security  against  crafty  and  dangerous  encroachments  on  the  public  lib- 
erty. They  multiply  the  educated  individuals,  from  among  whom  the 
people  may  elect  a  due  portion  of  their  public  agents  of  every  descrip- 
tion; more  especially  those  who  are  to  frame  the  laws  by  the  perspicu- 
ity,  the  constancy,  and  the  stability,  as  well  as  the  justice  and  equal 


371  ]  APPENDIX  371 

spirit  of  which  the  great  social  purposes  are  to  be  answered."  James 
Madison. 

"  Moral,  intellectual  and  political  improvements  are  duties  assigned 
by  the  Author  of  our  existence  to  social,  no  less  than  individual,  man. 
For  the  fulfilment  of  these  duties  governments  are  invested  with  power, 
and  to  the  attainment  of  these  ends  the  exercise  of  this  power  is  a  duty 
sacred  and  indispensable,"     J.  Q.  Adams. 

"  The  wisdom  and  generosity  of  the  Legislature  in  making  liberal 
appropriations  in  money  for  the  benefit  of  schools,  academies  and  col- 
leges, is  an  equal  honor  to  them  and  their  constituents,  a  proof  of  their 
veneration  for  letters  and  science,  and  a  portent  of  great  and  lasting 
good  to  North  and  South  America,  and  to  the  world."  John  Q.  Adams, 
Inaugural. 

"  The  theory  of  our  government  is,  not  that  all  men,  however  unfit, 
shall  be  voters,  but  that  every  man,  by  the  power  of  reason  and  the  sense 
of  duty,  shall  become  fit  to  be  a  voter.  Education  must  bring  the  practice 
as  near  as  possible  to  the  theory.  As  the  children  now  are,  so  will  the 
sovereigns  soon  be."     Horace  Mann. 


3/2  APPENDIX  [372 

SUPERVISION  OF  SCHOOLS. 

Balliet,  T.  M.     City  School  Supervision.     Educa.  Rev.,  2  :482. 
Barnard,  H.     Life  and  Works  of  Horace  Mann,  2:390  ff.,  401  ff. 

Report  of  Public  Schools  of  Rhode  Island  for  1845.  pp. 
24,  113- 
Boone,  R.  G.     Education  in  the  United  States,  chap.  6,  7. 
Block,  L.  J.     School  Supervision.     Educa.,  12  :558. 
Buehrle,  R.  K.     School  Supervision  in   Pennsylvania.     Educa.  Rev.,  8; 

461. 
Edson,  A.  W.     School  Supervision.     Educa.,  13:391. 
Gove,  A.     City  School  Supervision.     Educa.  Rev.,  2 :256,  362,  482. 
Greenwood,  J.  M.     City  School  Supervision.     Educa.  Rev.,  2 :362. 

Efficient  School  Supervision.     Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1888, 

P-  519- 
Hancock,  John.     School  Supervision  in  the  United  States,  etc.     Proc. 

N.  E.  A.,  1887,  p.  512. 
Harris,  W.  T.     Discussion  on  Supervision.     Educa.  Rev.,  3:167-172. 
Hinsdale,    B.   A.     American    School    Superintendent.     Educa.    Rev.,   7: 

42,  186. 
Kennedy,  J.     Function  of  Supervision.     Educa.  Rev.,  i  :465. 
Kiddle  &  Schem.     "  Supervision."     Cyclopedia  of  Education,  p.  800. 
Martin,  G.  H.     Evolution  of  Massachusetts  Public  School  System,  pp. 

64,  149,  220. 
Mowry,  W.  A.     Permanent  Tenure  of  Office  for  School  Superintendent. 

Educa.,  15:274. 
Payne,  W.  H.     School  Supervision,  p.  13. 

Philbrick,  J.  D.     City  School  Systems.     Circ.  of  Inform.  L^.  S.  Bureau 
of  Educa.,  No.  i,  1885. 
Inspection  of  Country  Schools.     Jour,  of  Social  Sci., 
1  :ii. 
Pickard,  J.  L.     School  Supervision,  chap.  2. 
Sabin.   H.    (and   others).     The   Rural    School    Problem.     Educa.    Rev., 

10:172.     Also  Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1899.  pp.  459,  loio. 
Stevenson,  R.  W.     City  and  Town  Supervision.     Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1884, 
p.  283. 
Supervision.      Am.    Jour.    Educa..    2:475.    497.    5I3. 

525  ;  5  :653  ff. 
School  Supervision..     Circ.  of  Inform.  U.  S.  Bureau 
of  Educa..  No.  i.  1885,  pp.  5,  52;  Circ.  of  Inform. 
No.  4,  1884,  p.  13;  Circ.  of  Inform.  No.  2,  1889, 
p.  182. 
Tarbell,  H.  S.     City  School  Supervision.     Educa.  Rev.,  3:65-69. 
Webster,  D.      Benefits  of  Our  Common   Schools.      Am.  Jour.   Educa., 
I  :59i. 


373]  APPENDIX  373 

Recent  Discissions  on  Superintendence. 

Arnold,  S.  L.     School  Supervision.     Jour,  of  Educa.  (Boston),  45:240. 
Carroll   (and  others).     Supervision  as  Viewed  by  the  Supervised.    Jour. 
of  Educa.  (Boston),  45:140. 
Confessions  of  Three   Superintendents.     Atlan. 

Mo.,  82:544. 
Department  of  Superintendence  at  Indianapolis, 
1897.     Jour,  of  Educa.  (Boston),  45:139,  159, 
165  ;  Educa.  Rev.,  13  :405. 
Cubberley,  E.  P.     The  School  Situation  in  San  Francisco.     Educa.  Rev., 

21 :364. 
Draper,  A.  S.  (and  others).     City  School  Systems.     Educa.,  9:304;  6:1. 

Inception   of   an   American    State   School 
System.     Educa.   Rev.,  8:105;  see  also 

p.  389. 
Gay,  G.  E.     School  Organization  in  Small  Cities.     Educa.,  21  :45i. 
Gilbert  &  Greenwood.     Large  School  Boards  or  Small?     Educa.  Rev., 

4:179,  386. 
Jones,  L.  H.     Province  of  the  Supervisor.     Jour,  of  Educa.   (Boston), 

45: 139. 
Lukens,  H.  T.     Child  Study  for  Superintendents.     Educa.  Rev.,  13:105. 
Marble,  A.  P.     City  School  Administration.     Educa.  Rev.,  8:154. 
Mackenzie,  J.  C.     Supervision  of  Private  Schools  by  State  or  Municipal 

Authority.     School  Rev.,  i  :39i,  557. 
Moore,  C.  S.     Modern  City  School  Superintendent.     Educa.,  21 :598. 

New    England's    Superintendents'    Meeting.       Jour,    of 
Educa.    (Boston),  47:147,  323. 
Philips,  W.  L.     Pupil  Cooperation  in  School  Government.     Educa.,  22 : 

538. 
Prince,  J.  T.     Evolution  of  School.     Educa.  Rev.,  22:148. 
Reinhart,  J.  A.     Experiments   in    Supervision.     Jour   of   Educa.    (Bos- 
ton), 46:212. 
Regents'  System  in  New  York.     Jour,  of  Educa.  (Bos- 
ton), 45:224. 
Rockwood,  G.   H.     Problems   from  the   Standpoint   of  Administration. 

School  Rev.,  10:32. 
Sabin,   H.      City    School    System    Improvement.      Pub.    Opin.,   25:438; 

Educa.,  19:1. 
Shearer,  W.  J.     Lock-Step  in  Public  Schools.     Atlan.  Mo.,  79:749. 
Thurber,  C.  H.     Philosophy  of  School  Management.     School  Rev.,  4: 
112.     (Review.) 
Town  Systems  vs.  District   Systems.      Wis.  Jour,  of 
Educa.,  I  :ioi,  169,  454. 


374  APPENDIX  [374 

QUESTIONS  ON  SCHOOL  SUPERVISION. 

1.  Discuss    the    origin    and    development    of    school    supervision    in 
America. 

2.  What  are  the  different  plans  for  effective  supervision? 

3.  What  are  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  each? 

4.  What  States  seem  to  have  the  best  sj^stem  of  supervision? 

5.  What  would  be  the  best  plan  for  supervision  in  Nebraska? 

6.  Would  this  plan  be  equally  good  for  Massachusetts?     Why? 

7.  What  are  the  requisites  of  an  efficient  superintendent? 


375]  •         APPENDIX  375 

PROVISIONS  FOR  THE  PREPARATION  AND  IMPROVE- 
MENT OF  TEACHERS. 

1.  The   establishment   of  educational   societies   and   the   formation   of 
teachers'  clubs  for  mutual  improvement. 

2.  Institutes  and  educational  associations,  County,  State  and  National. 

(o)   Order  of  development. 

(b)    Nature  and  purpose  of  each. 

((■)   Influence  upon  education 

3.  Educational   literature,   including  books  on   pedagogy,   periodicals, 
educational  reports,  etc. 

4.  Normal  schools ;  their  origin,  development,  present  conditions  and 
influence  upon  education. 

5.  The  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  Normal  training. 

6.  Chairs    of   pedagogy.     Conditions    leading    to    their    establishment. 
Advantages  and  disadvantages  as  compared  with  Normal  schools. 

7.  Teachers'  training  colleges  and  schools  of  education.     How  differ- 
ent from  Normal  schools  and  chairs  of  pedagogy? 

8.  Summer  schools,  etc. 

Institutes,  Educational  Associations,  etc. 

American  Institute  of  Instruction.     Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  2:19. 
Barnard,  H.     Teachers'  Institute  in  Wisconsin.     Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  8: 
673;  15:276,  326. 
Benefits  of  Teachers'  Institutes.     Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  14: 
253;  22:357. 
Boone,  R.  G.     Education  in  the  United  States,  p.  117. 

Educational  Associations.     Report  U.  S.  Comr.  Educa., 
1878.   1:297.     Am.  Jour.   Educa.,   16:352-390,  745-790; 
22:513-558. 
Historical    Development    of    Institutes    in    the    United 

States.     Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  15  :387. 
History  of  National  Educational  Association.     Proc.  N. 
E.  A.,  1891,  p.  118. 
Martin,  G.  H.     Massachusetts  Public  School  System,  pp.  172,  262. 

National    Educational    Association :    Proceedings    and 
Addresses.     1889:    pp.   394,    559,   597;    1890:   pp.   321, 
672,  673;  1891:  193,  505,  701,  713,  727,  733. 
National  Council  of  Education.     On  the  Professional  Training  of  Teach- 
ers in  Normal   Schools  and  Colleges.     Proc.  N.   E.  A.,  1893,  p. 

383-454- 
National  Council  of  Education.     Report  on  Normal  School  Education. 
Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1895,  501. 


3/6  APPENDIX  [375 

National  Eklucational  Association  Proceedings  of  Department  Super- 
intendents. U.  S.  Bureau  of  Educa.  Circulars  of  Information, 
1889,  No.  2,  p.  26;  1888,  No.  6,  pp.  44-80. 

See  Index  to  the  Proceedings  of  the  N.  E.  A.  and  to  Am.  Jour.  Educa. 
(Barnard). 

Training  of  Teachers — Nonnul  Schools,  Colleges,  etc. 
Adams,  C.  K.    Pedagogy  in  Colleges  and  Universities.    Academy  (Syra- 
cuse), 3  1469. 
Aspenwall,   W.    B.     Necessity   of   Professional  Training   for  Teachers. 

Educa.,  23:27-31. 
Attenborough,  J.  M.     Training  of  Secondary  Teachers.     Westm.,   157: 

682. 
Barnes,    Earl.      Study   of    Education    in    Stanford    University.      Educa. 

Rev.,  6:300. 
Boone,  R.  G.     History  of  Education  in  the  United  States,  pp.  125,  142. 
Boone  (and  others).     Training  Teachers.     Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1894,  P-  II4- 
Bramwelle,  Amy.     Training  of  Teachers  in  the  United  States. 
Brown,  E.  E.     Education  at  University  of  California.     Educa.  Rev.,  8: 

169. 
Butler,  N.  M.     Training  the  Teacher.     Cent..  16:915. 
Cook,  J.   W.     Professional  Training  of  Teachers  in   Normal   Schools. 

Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1894,  p.  86. 
De  Garmo,  Chas.     School   Reform.     Educa.   Rev.,  21:118. 
Desmond,  W.  J.     Evolution  of  the  Educator.     Cent.,   17:318;   see  also 

p.  797  (L.  P.  Nash). 
Edson,  A.  W.     Legitimate  Work  of  the  State  Normal  School.     Educa., 

16:274. 
Everett,  E.     Object  of  Normal  Schools.     Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  13:758. 
Edwards,  R.     Normal  Schools  in  the  United  States.    Am.  Jour.  Educa., 

16:271. 
Findlay,  J.  J.     Recent  Summer  School  at  Jena.     Educa.  Rev.,  6:364. 
Foster,  F.  C.     Normal  School  and  School  of  Pedagogy.     Educa.  Rev., 

7  :383. 
Gay,  G.  E.     Massachusetts  Normal  Schools.     Educa.,  17:513;  18:55. 
Gordy,  J.  P.     Rise  and  Growth  of  the  Normal  School  Idea  in  the  United 

States.     Circ.  of  Inform.  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Educa.,  No.  8,  1891. 
Hadley,  A.  T.     Academic  Training  in  Theory  and  in  Practice.     Atlan. 

Mo.,  91  :i52. 
Hall,  G.  S.     Chairs  of  Pedagogy  in  Our  Higher  Institutions  of  Learn- 
ing.    Circ.  of  Inform.  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Educa.,  No.  2, 
1882,  p.  35. 
American    Universities    and    the    Training    of    Teachers. 
Forum,  17:148. 
Ilanus,  P.  H.     Pedagogy   at   Harvard.     Educa.   Rev.,   2:252. 


^77]  APPENDIX  377 

Study    of    Education    at    Harvard    University.      Educa. 
Rev.,  7  .-247. 
Hill,  Thomas.     Didactics  in  College.     Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  15:177. 
Hinsdale,   B.   A.     Study  of  Education   in  the  University  of  Michigan. 

Educa.  Rev.,  6:443. 
Harris,  W.  T.      Chairs    of    Pedagogy    in    Colleges    and    Universities. 
Educa.,  3:153- 
Future  of  the  Normal  School.     Educa.  Rev.,  17:1. 
History    of    Normal    Schools.     Am.   Jour.    Educa.,    1:587;    4:289,    713; 

6:93;  10:15:   12:653. 
Hunter,  Thos.     Normal  Schools :  Their  Necessity  and  Growth.     Educa., 

5  :235. 
Jacobs,  W.   B.     Training  of  Teachers  for  Secondary  Schools.     Educa. 

Rev..  II  :245. 
Kiehle,  D.  L.     True  Place  of  Normal  Schools  in  the  Educational  Sys- 
tem.    Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1882,  pp.  175-180. 
Laurie,    S.    S.     Study   of   Education    at   the    University   of   Edinburgh. 

Educa.  Rev.,  7:55. 
McDonald,  J.   A.     Professional   Training  of  Teachers  t)y   Educational 

Publications.     Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1894,  P-  106. 
Marion,  Henry.     Study  of  Education  at  Sorbonne.     Educa.  Rev.,  7:122. 
Martin,  G.  H.     Massachusetts  Public  School  System,  pp.  169-173. 
O'Shea,  M.  V.     Professional  Training  of  Teachers.     Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  45 : 

796. 
Ramsey,  C.  C.     Normal  Schools  in  the  United  States.     Educa.,  17:232. 
A.  F.  S.     Professional  Training  of  Secondary  Teachers.     Educa., 
22:652:  23:57. 
Shaw,  A.  W.     Friedrich  Paulsen.     Educa.  Rev.,  8 :363. 

Scope  of  Normal  Schools.     Atlan.  Mo.,  73:811. 
Sewall,  J.  B.      Duty  of  Colleges  to  Provide  for  Training  of  Teachers 

for  Secondary  Schools.     Acad.    (Syr.),  4:449. 
Speed,  J.  G.     Higher  Pay  and  Better  Training  for  Teachers.     Forum, 
20 :247. 
Statistics  of  Normal  Schools.    Report  of  U.  S.  Comr.  of 

Educa.,  1894-1895,  I  :i07. 
Training  of  Teachers.  Report  of  the  Committee  of  Fif- 
teen. Also  in  Report  of  U.  S.  Comr.  of  Educa.,  1893- 
1894,  1 :469.  Educa.  Rev.,  9 :209.  Report  of  Special 
Committee  on  Normal  Schools ;  Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1899, 
pp.  836-903. 
White,  E.  E.     Professional  Training  of  Teachers  in  Summer  Schools. 

Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1894,  p.  100. 
Williams,  S.  C.     Professional  Training  of  Teachers  in  Colleges.     Proc. 

N.  E.  A.,  1894,  p.  93. 
Weldon,  J.   E.  C.     Teacher's  Training  of  Himself.     Contemp.,  63:369. 
See  articles  in  Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1893,  PP-  810-851. 


378  APPENDIX  [378 

GRADATION  OF  SCHOOLS. 

1.  What  is  included  under  tlie  term  gradation? 

2.  What    were    some   of   the   earliest    attempts    at    gradation    in    this 
country  ? 

3.  What  are  the  principal  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  gradation? 

4.  Can  the  same  system  of  gradation  be  used  in  the  district  as  in  the 
city?     Give  reasons  for  answer. 

5.  What  correlation  of  studies  in  elementary  and   secondary  educa- 
tion would  you  advise? 

6.  What  are  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  uniform  curricula 
in  elementary,  secondary  and  higher  education  ? 

7.  What  plan  of  promotion  is  most  efficient  and  best  adapted  to  meet 
the  individuality  of  the  pupils? 

Adams,  F.     Free  School  System  of  the  United  States,  pp.  199-207. 
Barnard,    H.      Views   and    Suggestions   on   the   Gradation   of   Schools. 

Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  2:455;  11:563;  15:316. 
Barney,    H.     Views   and    Suggestions   on   Gradation   of   Schools.     Am. 

Jour.  Educa.,  2:538. 
Blewett.    B.     The   System   of   Grading    Schools    in    St.    Louis.     Educa. 

Rev.,  8:387. 
Boone,  R.  G.     Education  in  the  United  States,  p.  331  ff. 
Corbett,   Henry  R.     Free  High   Schools   for  Rural   Pupils.     Report  of 

U.  S.  Comr.  of  Educa.,  1899-1900,  1:643-662;  also  School  Rev., 

April  and  May,  1900. 
Dickinson,  J.  W.,  and  others.     Courses  of  Study  for  Country  Schools. 

Educa.,  3:179. 
Gradation   of  Schools   in   Cities   of  the 
United    States.      Am.    Jour.    Educa., 
19:429,  442. 
Gilbert,  C.  B.     Reconstruction  of  Gramm.ar  School  Curriculum.     Proc. 

N.  E.  A.,  1894,  p.  323. 
Gordon,  C.  H.     Reorganization  of  the  Grammar  School  and  a  Rational 

System  of  Grading.     Educa.,  21  :i6. 
Martin,    G.    H.     The   Evolution    of    the    Massachusetts    Public    School 

System,  p.  186  fT. 
Meleney,    C.    E.     Basis    of   a    Graded    School    System.     Science,   8  :S9l 

(Old  Series). 
Memminger,  C.  G.     Views  and  Suggestions  on  Gradation  of  Schools. 

Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  2  :555. 
Pearse,  C.  G.     Essentials  in  a  Course  of  Study.     Educa.,  17:425. 
Page,  M.  H.     Graded  Schools  of  the  United  States,  p.  i  ff. 
Philbrick,   J.    D.      Views   and    Suggestions    on    Gradation    of    Schools. 

Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  2:263. 


379]  APPENDIX  379 

Prince.  J.  T.     Courses  and  Methods  for  Primary,  Grammar  and  Ud* 
graded    Schools.      Report  on    Preparation    for   Colleges,    Part  i 
Proc.  N.  E.  A..  1884. 
Ross,  G.  W.     The  School  System  of  Ontario. 

Crusade     against     the     Common     Schools :     School     or 

Scholar?     Andover  Rev.,  3:362;  6:523. 
Ungraded  Schools.     Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1895,  p.  464. 
Shearer,  W.  J.    Faulty  Grading  in  Our  Schools.     Forum,  33:469.    Al«o 
Greater  Flexibility  in   High   School   Work.     School  Rev.,  9:1^*^, 
232. 
Wells.  D.  C.     Proposed  Reform  of  Grammar  School  Curriculum.     Ar- 
dover  Rev.,  17:47,  197. 


38o  .1PPENDIX  [380 

CHANGES  IN  COLLEGE  CURRICULA,  UNIVERSITY  EXTEN- 
SION,  AND  GROWTH  IN  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION. 

1.  What  are  some  of  the  changes  that  have  taken   place  in  college 
curricula  in  late  years? 

2.  What  effect  have  these  changes  had  on  the  teaching  in  elementary 
schools  ? 

3.  What  is  the  elective  system?     Why  was  it  introduced? 

4.  What  is  meant  by  the  group  system  of  studies? 

5.  What  is  meant  by  the  system  of  specialization? 

6.  Advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the  different  systems? 

7.  Where    are    educational    reforms    most    likely    to    originate,    t.    t., 
within  or  without  the  schools ; 

8.  What  are  the  chief  difficulties  with  university  extension  work? 

COLLEGE  CURRICULA. 

Butler,  N.  M.     Two  Years'  College  Course.     Rev.  of  Revs.,  26:589. 
Conklin,  Edw.  G.     Recent  Changes  in   College  Courses.     Independent, 

53:198. 
Dewey,   John.      Situation    as    Regards   the   Course   of    Study.      Educa. 

Rev.,  22 :26. 
Oilman,  D.  C.     Present  Aspects  of  College  Training.     North  Am.  Rev., 
136:526  (2  vol.). 
Growth  and  Change  in   College  Education.     Cent.,  22 : 

317- 
Modern  Collegiate  Education.     Cent.,   14  '.ySg. 
Ladd,   G.    T.      Disintegration    and    Reconstruction   of   the    Curriculum. 

Forum,  33  :i65. 
MacDonald,  W.     Three  Years'  Course  in  New  England.     Nation,  75: 

322. 
McCosh,  Jas.     What  an  American  University  Should  Be.     Educa.,  6 :35. 
Should  Special  Academic  Courses  Be  Offered  in  Prep- 
aration   for    Profession    Schools.      Regent's    Report, 
Univ.  of  State  of  N.  Y.,  1893,  p.  464. 
Willard,  H.  M.     Relation  of  Secondary  Schools  to  the  College.     Educa., 

6 :469. 
West,  A.  F.     The  Relation  of   Secondary  Education  to  the  American 
University  Problem.     Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1885,  p.  195. 

UNIVERSITY  EXTENSION. 

Brown,  Helen  D.     University  Extension.     Educa.,  11:15. 
Brumbaugh,    M.    G.     University   Extension.     Educa.,    13:421,    482.    552, 
618. 


38l]  APPENDIX  381 

Davidson,  Jno.     University  Extension  Congress,  London.     Educa.  Rev., 

1894,  8:350. 
Earle,  A.  M.     University  Extension   in  America.     19th  Cent.,  38:308. 
Henderson,  C.  H.     Nationalization  of  the  University  Extension.     Pop. 

Sci.  Mo.,  40:500  (see  also  p.  i). 
More,  C.  M.     Handbook  of  University  Extension.     Cath.  World,  57  •.27. 
Palmer,  G.  H.     Doubts  About  University  Extension.     Atlan.  Mo.,  69: 

367. 
Powell,  L.  P.     Tea   Years   of   University    Extension.     Atlan.    Mo.,   88: 
393- 
Problems  of  University  Extension.     Dial,  13 :297. 
Sciidder,  V.  D.     College  Settlements.     Nation,  56:140. 
Simpson,  M.  H.    University  Extension  and  Science  of  Teaching.    Cent., 

18:479. 
Snider,    M.    B.     New    Phase   of    University    Extension.     Science,    19:1 

(Old  Series). 
Sadler,  M.  E.     Facts  About  University  Extension.     19th  Cent.,  36:371. 
West,  A.  F.     University  Extension.     Atlan.  Mo.,  69:713. 

American    Pioneers    of    University    Extension.      Educa. 
Rev.,  2:220. 

INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION. 
Auchmuty,  R.  T.     The  Need  of  Trade  Schools.     Cent.,  11:83. 
Barnard,  Charles.     New  Roads  to  a  Trade.     Cent.,  i  :285. 
Carter,  C.  M.     The  Industrial  Idea  in  Education.     Cent.,  14:679. 
Dewey,  Jno.     Psychological   Aspect  of  Curriculum.     Educa.   Rev.,   13 : 

356. 
Gilman,  D.  C.     Hand-Craft  and  Rede-Craft.     Cent.,   10:837. 
Leland,  C.  G.     Handwork   in  Public  Schools.     Cent.,  2 :890. 

Manual   Training  in   Common   Schools.     Cent.,    13:482. 
MacAlister,  J.,  and  others.     Manual  Training  in  Public  Schools.     Cent., 

13  :485- 
Thorpe.   F.   N.     Manual    Training  as   a   Factor   in   Modem   Education. 
Cent..  16  :920. 

Harris.  W.  T.    Classification  and  Instruction  in  Rural  Schools.    Educa., 

Rev.,  14 :209. 
Henderson,    C.    H.     Philosophy   of   Manual    Training.     Pop.    Sci.    Mo., 

53:145- 

Jackman,  W.  S.  Rural  School  Course  of  Study.  Jour,  of  Educa.  (Bos- 
ton), 45:303- 

Jones.  L.  H.  Course  of  Study  in  Elementary  Schools.  Educa.  Rev., 
16:300. 

Lukens.  H.  T.  Vital  Questions  in  the  Curriculum :  Logical  and  Psy- 
chological Sequence.     Educa.,  18:19. 


382  APPENDIX  [382 

EDUCATION  OF  DEFECTIVE  AND  CRIMINAL  CLASSES. 

Allen,   E.   E.      Education   of   Defectives ;    in   Education   in  the   United 

States,  2  771 ;  N.  M.  Butler,  editor. 
Anagnos,  M.     Helen  Keller.     Pamphlet. 

Beggs,  T.     Inquiry  into  the  Extent  of  Causes  of  Juvenile  Depravity. 
Bell,  A.  M.     English  Visible  Speech. 
Ellis,  Havelock.     The  Criminal. 

Gordon,  J.  C.     Notes  and  Observations  on  Education  of  Deaf. 
Henderson,  C.  R.     Dependent.  Defective  and  Delinquent  Classes. 
Keller,  Helen.     The  Story  of  My  Life. 

Lamson,  Mary  S.     Life  and  Education  of  Laura  Bridgman. 
Lewis,  F.  P.     The  Blind  as  Seen  Through  Blind  Eyes. 
MacDonald,  A.     Criminology. 
Morrison,  W.  D.     Crime  and  Its  Causes. 

Periodicals. 
Adams,  Mabel  E.     Education  of  the  Deaf  and  Dumb.     Pop.  Sci.  Mcij 

50:109. 
Aikins,  H.  A.     Education  of  Deaf  and  Dumb.     Educa.  Rev.,  12 :236. 
Barnard,  H.     Reformatory  Schools.     Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  i  1609 ;  3 :567 ; 

4  :359- 
Bates,  R.  C.     Character-Building  at  Elmira.     Public  Opinion,  24 :556. 
Bell  and  others.     Education  of  Deaf.     Science,  16:85,  n?,  163,  218,  248, 

317,  :i2,7,  358. 

Bohannon,    E.    W.      A    Study   of    Peculiar   and    Exceptional    Children. 

Ped.  Sem.,  4:3. 
Call,  A.  D.     Education  versus  Crime.     Educa.,  22 :587. 
Croter,  A.  L.  E.     Higher  Education  of  the  Deaf.     Science,  19:199. 
Deltour,   F.     Paris   National   Institution   for  Deaf  Mutes.     Chaut.,   15: 

592. 
Clippinger.     "  Deaf  and  Dumb."     Encyc.   Brit.,  VII,  p.  3. 
Draper,  A.  G.     The  Silent  College  at  Washington.     Scribner,  3 :727. 
Dumb  Men's  Speech.     Cornh.,  16:693. 
Out  of  the  Silence.     Cornh.,  17 :573. 
Gallaudet,  E.  M.     American   and   European    Systems   of   Education   of 
the  Deaf  and  Dumb.     New  Englander,  27:1. 
Education  of  the  Deaf  and  Dumb.     Report  of  U.  S. 

Comr.  of  Educa. :  1870,  p.  371  ;  1871,  p.  449. 
On  Education  of  Deaf  and  Dumb  (Life  and  Labors 
of  T.    H.    Gallaudet).     North    Am.    Rev.,   87:517; 
Science,   19:231. 
Values  in  Education  of  the  Deaf.     Educa.  ReA^,  4:16. 
Greely,  A.  W.     Higher  Education  of  Deaf  Mutes  in  America.     Rev.  of 
Revg.,  16:57. 


383]  APPENDIX  383 

Howe,  S.  G.     Education  of  Blind.     Report  of  U.  S.  Comr.  of  Educa., 

1871,  p.  445- 
Kirkpatrick,  E.  A.     Education  and  the  Nervous  System  in  Ciiildhood. 

Educa.,  23  -.20. 
MacDonald,    A.     Criminological    Studies.     Report   of   U.    S.    Comr.    of 

Educa.,  1893-1894,  2 :  1663-1699. 
Miller,  S.  M.     Treatment  of  Deaf,  Dumb  and  Blind :  Ascent  of  Man. 

Arena,  12:130. 
Morrison,    Mary   G.     Horace   Mann    School    for   the   Deaf.     Pop.    Sci. 

Mo.,  19:84. 
Morton,  A.     Deaf  Mutes  and  Their  Instruction.     Educa.,  18:417. 
Norton,  Lord.     Schools  as  Prisons  and  Prisons  as  Schools.     19th  Cent., 

21  :iio. 
Peet,  W.  B.     Education  of  the  Deaf  and  Dumb.     Scribner,  12:463. 
Perry,  E.  B.     The  Blind  as  Students.     Cent.,   13:163,  806. 

Education  of  the  Blind    (as  children).     Cent.,  12:633. 
Pontiac  Reformatory  and  Parole  Law.     Public  Opinion, 
24:143. 
Sabin,  H.     Education  and  Crime  as  Treated  by  Cyrus  Pierce.     Educa., 

23:41. 
Samuels,  Emma.     Adoption  of  Street  Arabs  by  the  State.     Fortn.  Rev., 

69:111. 
Sanbum,  F.  R.     Schools  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb.     Nation,  4:249.  339- 
Deaf    Mute    Education.      North    Am.    Rev.,    104:512; 

38:307    (Barnard). 
Training  of  Deaf.     Public  Opinion,  24  :463. 
Wells,  K.  G.     Education  of  Feeble  Minded.     New  Eng.  Mag.,  22:6. 


384  APPENDIX  [384 

EDUCATION  OF  THE  NEGRO  AND  CONDITION  OF  EDUCA- 
TION IN  THE  SOUTH. 

Andrews,  C.  G.     Education  of  the  Colored  Race.     Educa.,  6:221. 
Alderman,  E.  A.     Education  in  the  South.     Outlook,  68:775. 
Barringer,  P.  B.     Negro  Education  in  the  South.     Educa.  Rev.,  21  :233. 
Bumstead,    H.     The    Freedmen'.';    Children    at    School.     Andover   Rev., 

4:550. 
Chamberlain,   A.   F.     African   and   American.     The   Contact  of   Negro 
and  Indian.     The  Negro  and  the  Indian  Ethnologically  Consid- 
ered.    Science,  17:85. 
Conway.  M.  D.     Benj.  Banneker,  the  Negro  Astronomer.     Atlan.  Mo., 
11:79. 
Colored   Scliools.     Nation.  53 :38. 
Crogman.     Negro  Education:  Its  Helps  and  Hindrances.     Proc.  N.  E. 
A.,  1884,  pp.  106-116. 
Education  of  the  Negro.     Educa.,  17:366-369. 
Du  Bois,  W.  E.  B.     Burden    of    Negro    Schooling.      Independent,    53: 
1667. 
Training  of  Black  Men.     Atlan.  Mo.,  901289. 
Greenwood,  J.  M.     Colored  Race  in  Missouri.     Educa..  8:366-374. 
Gunby,  A.  A.     General  Statement  of  the  Race  Problem.     Proc.   N.  E. 

A.,  1890,  p.  254. 
Harris,  W.  T.     Education  of  the  Negro.     Atlan.  Mo.,  69:721. 
Ingle,    E.     The    Negro   in    the    District   of   Columbia.     Johns    Hopkins 

Studies  in  Hist,  and  Polit.  Sci.,  11  :99  flf  (Nos.  3  and  4). 
Kirke.   E.      How    Shall   the   Negro    Be   Educated?      North    Am.    Rev., 

143:421. 
Johnson,  W.  P.     Industrial  Education  of  the  Colored  People.     Educa., 

5:636.  ~ 

Jefferson,   Thos.      Intellectual    Capabilities   of  the   Negro.      Am.   Jour. 

Educa.,  19:297. 
Keating,  J.   M.     Twenty   Years   of  Negro   Education.     Pop.    Sci.   Mo., 

28 :24. 
Mathews,  Wm.     The  Negro  Intellect.     North  Am.  Rev..  149:91. 
Mayo.  A.  D.     How   Shall  the   Colored  Youth  of  the   South   Be  Edu- 
cated?    New  Eng.  Mag.   (n.  s.),  17:213. 
Our  Negro  Schools.     Harper,  49 :457. 
Miller.  K.     Negro  and  Education.     Forum,  30:693. 
Owen,   A.     Higher  Education   of  the   Colored   Race.     Proc.   N.   E.   A., 

1889,  pp.  546-553- 
Powell,  S.  W.     Should  Higher  Education  Be  Provided  for  the  Negro? 

Cent.,  27  :956. 
Reports  of  the  U.  S.  Comr.  of  Educa. :  Complete  List  of  References, 
1894-1895,  vol.  2,  p.  1331. 


385]  APPENDIX  385 

American  Common  School  in  the  South,  1790-1840;  1895- 

1896,  vol.  I,  p.  267  ff. 
Education  of  the  Colored  Race,  1894-1895,  vol.  2,  p.  1331. 
Education  in  the  South,  1894-1895,  vol.  2,  p.  1326. 
Education  of  the  Negro,  1892-1893,  vol.  2,  p.  1551  ff. 
Salisbury,  A.     Some    Conclusions    Concerning    the    Education   of   the 
Negro.    Andover  Rev.,  6:256. 
Schools  in  the  South.    Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  50:406;  Educa., 
16 :628. 
Shaw,  Albert.     Negro  Progress  on  the  Tuskegee  Plan.     Rev.  of  Revs., 

9 :436. 
Slattery,  J.   R.     How   Shall  the   Negro   Be  Educated?    Cath.   World, 

56:28. 
Stratton,  J.  R.    Will  Education  Solve  the  Race  Problem?    North  Am. 
Rev.,  170:785. 
The  Future  of  the  Negro.    In  Hart's  American  His- 
tory Told  by  Contemporaries,  4 :663. 
Washington,  Booker  T.    Education    Will    Solve    the    Race    Problem. 
North  Am.  Rev.,  171 :22i. 
Educate   the   Cuban    Negroes.    Outlook,   60: 

147. 
Future  of  American  Negro. 
Life  Work   at   Tuskegee   Normal   Industrial 
Institute.     Chaut.,    18:197;    Rev.   of   Revs., 
16 :474- 
Booker  Washington  and  Tuskegee  Institute. 
New  Eng.  Mag.  (n.  s.),  17:131  (Calloway). 
Up  from  Slavery:  An  Autobiography. 
Education  of  the  Negro.    In  Education  in  the 
United  States,  2:893-936;  edited  by  N.  M. 
Butler. 
Thrasher,  M.  B.    Tuskegee:  Its  Story  and  Its  Work. 
Scarborough,  W.  S.     Booker  T.  Washington  and  His  Work.     Educa., 
20 1270. 
Race  Problem.    Arena,  2:560. 
Wickersham,  J.  P.     Education  of  Freedmen.     Am.  Jour.  Educa.,  16: 
292  (see  also  19:301). 


386  APPENDIX  [-386 

EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN  AND  WOMEN  EDUCATORS. 

Blood,  M.  E.     New  England  Girl  Graduates.     Arena,  24:214. 
Brackett,  A.  C.     Woman  and  the  Higher  Education. 
Burstall,  S.  A.     The  Education  of  Girls  in  the  United  States. 
Clarke,  E.  H.     The  Building  of  a  Brain. 

Sex  in  Education ;  or,  A  Fair  Chance  for  Girls. 
Duffey,  E.  B.     No  Sex  in  Education. 
Howe,  J.  W.     Sex  in  Education. 
Lange,  H.     Higher  Education  of  Women  in  Europe. 
Maudsley,  H.     Sex  in  Mind  and  in  Education. 

Thomas,  M.   C.     Education  of  Women.     In  Education  in   the  United 
States,  1 :32i ;  edited  by  N.  M.  Butler. 

Periodicals. 
Aberdeen,  I.  M.  M.     Women  of  1800  and  1900.     Outlook,  67:46. 
Allen,  A.  T.      Economic  Relation  of  the  College  Woman  to   Society. 

Educa.,  22:351. 
Anthony,  Susan  B.     Her  Half  Century  of  Evolution.    North  Am.  Rev., 
175  :8oo. 
The  Status  of  Women;  Past,  Present,  and  Future. 
Arena,  17:901. 
Barney,  Elizabeth  C.     Women  at  the  University  of  London.     Nation, 

58 :286. 
Blauvelt,  M.  T.     Women  at  English  Universities.     Rev.  of  Revs.,  16: 

450. 
Brackett,  Anna  C.     The  Private  School  for  Girls.     Harper,  84:943. 
Browning,    O.      Universities    and    the    Higher    Education    of    Women. 

Forum,  24 :225. 
Canfield,  J.  H.     Co-Education.     Educa.  Rev.,  15 :3io. 
Claghorn,  Kate  H.     Occupation  for  College  Women.     Educa.  Rev.,  15 : 

217. 

Davidson,  Thos.     Ideal  Training  of  the  American  Girl.    Forum,  25  :47i. 

Ideal  Training  of  the  American  Boy.    Forum,  17:571. 

Education   of  the   American    Girl.      Public   Opinion, 

30 :46. 

Finke,  H.  T.     Why  Co-education  is  Losing  Ground.     Independent,  55 : 

301-305  (F,  s). 
Frank,  Louis.     University  Opportunities  for  Women.     Educa.  Rev.,  8: 

471. 
Franklin.  Fabian.     Intellectual  Powers  of  Woman.    North  Am.  Rev., 

166 :40. 
Gardiner,  F.  H.     Woman's  Education  in  Spain.     Educa.,  18  '.2i7' 
Gardner,  C.  E.     College  Women  and  Matrimony.    Educa.,  20:285. 
Genthe,  Martha  K.    Women  at  German  Universities.    Forum,  33:243. 


387]  APPENDIX  387 

Gilman,  A.     The  Proper  Education  of  Girls.     Nation,  64:47. 
Goucher,  Jno.  F.    The  Advisable  Differences  between  the  Education  of 

Young  Women  and  that  of  Young  Men.     School  Rev.,  7  :577. 
Hadley,  A.  T.     Admission  of  Women  as  Graduate  Students  at  Yale. 

Educa.  Rev.,  3  :486. 
Harris,   W.   T.     Relation   of  Woman   to  the  Trades   and   Professions. 

Educa.  Rev.,  20:217. 
Higginson,  T.  W.      Ought    Women    to    Learn    the    Alphabet?     Atlan. 
Mo.,  3:137- 
Higher  Education  for  Women.     Independent,  53 : 
687. 
Hopkins,  L.  P.     Co-Education  in  Boston  Public  Schools.     Educa.  Rev., 

1 :46. 
Ruling,  R.  G.     College  Women  and  Physical  Training.     Educa.  Rev., 

7:78. 
Jordan,  D.  S.     Higher  Education  of  Women.     Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  62  -.gj. 
Kropotkin,    Sophie.      Higher    Education   of   Women   in    Russia.      19th 

Cent.,  43:117- 
Mearkle,  A.  L.     Education  and  Marriages  of  Women.     Arena,  23:661. 

Sex  in  Education.     Arena,  24 :2o6. 
Moque,  Alice  Lee.     An  Educated  Maternity.     Westm.,  153 :53. 
Mowry,  D.     Women  as  School  Officers.     Arena,  24:198. 
Perry,  Jennette  B.     Shortcomings  in  the  Education  of  Women.     Critic, 

28:137. 
Pickard,  J.  L.     Co-Education  in  Colleges.     Educa.,  13  :259. 
Ridding,  Lady  Laura.     Women  on   Education  Authorities.     Contemp., 

79:109-116. 
Rogers,  Anne.     Women  Students  at  Oxford.     Educa.  Rev.,  3 :497. 
Salter,  W.   M.      What  is  the  Real   Emancipation  of  Woman.      Atlan. 

Mo.,  89 :28. 
Schurman,  J.  G.     Higher  Education.     Harper's  Weekly,  45 :684. 
Seton,  W.     Higher  Education  of  Woman  and  Posterity.     Cath.  World, 

73:147- 
Several,  May  N.  W.     Co-Education  in  Secondary  Schools  and  Colleges. 

Arena,  17:767. 
Slater,  Edith.     Education  of  the  English   Parent.     Westm.,   153 :324. 
Smith,  Mary  R.     Recent   Tendencies    in   Education    of   Women.     Pop. 
Sci.  Mo.,  48:27. 
Education  for  Domestic  Life.     Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  53:521. 
Smith,  C.  F.     Higher  Education  of  Women  in  the  South.     Educa.  Rev., 

8 :287. 
Smith,  A.  T.     Higher  Education  of  Women  in  France.     Forum,  30 :503. 
Stewart,  J.  A.     Women  Deans  of  Women's  Colleges.     Chaut.,  33 :486. 
Talbot,  Marion.     Present  Day  Problems  in  the  Education  of  Women. 

Educa.  Rev.,  14:248. 


388  APPENDIX  [388 

Tetlow,  J.    Education  of  Women  for  the  Learned  Professions.    Educa. 

Rev.,  II  :ios. 
Thomas,  M.  C.    Should  Woman's  Education  Differ  from  Man's?    Educa. 

Rev.,  21  :i. 
Thurber,  C.  H.     Cant  Concerning  Co-Education.     School  Rev.,  5 :4s. 
Thwing,  C.  F.     Should  Woman's  Education  Differ  from  Man's  ?     Forum, 

30 :728. 
Tilley,  L.  L.    Woman's  Work  at  a  German  University.    Outlook,  69: 

368. 
Walker,  F.  A.     Normal  Training  in  Woman's  Colleges.    Educa,  Rev., 

4  =328. 
Willard,  Francis  E.    Shortcomings  in  the  Education  of  Women.    Critic, 

28  -.97. 
White,  Marian  A.    Higher  Education  of  Women — Women  in  Journal- 
ism.    Arena,  23  •.66g. 
Witte,  A.    The  vVoman's  Educational  Movement  in  Germany.    Higher 

Education  of  Women  in  Germany.     Educa.,  13  '.ZJ- 
Whittelsay,  S.  S.    Women  and  the  Study  of  the  Social  Science.    Educa., 

23  :98. 
Women   at   Foreign   Universities.     Spectator,   68:232;    Forum,    19:187; 

Nation,  58:116,  137,  151,  154,  193,  212,  271;  Nation,  59:232,  247, 

268. 


389]  APPENDIX  389 

THE  NEW  EDUCATION. 

Aber,  Mary  A.     An  Experiment  in  Education  (Elementary).     Pol.  Sci. 

Mo.,  40:377,  517- 
Anderson,  J.  M.     Tlie  Old  and  the  New  in  Education.     Educa.,  12  :i64. 
Baker,  J.  H.     Educational  Values.     Educa.  Rev.,  10 :209. 
Briggs,  L.  B.  R.     Some  Old-Fashioned  Doubts  about  New-Fashioned 

Education.     Atlan.  Mo.,  86 :463. 
Buchanan,  J.  B.     New  Education  and  Its  Practical  Application.     Arena, 

6:653;  10:590. 
Buck,  Gertrude.    Another  Phase  of  the  New  Education.    Forum,  22: 

376. 
Burk,  F.     Old  Education  and  the  New.     Forum,  33 :474. 
Butler,  N.  M.     Five  Evidences  of  an  Education.     Educa.  Rev.,  22 :325. 
Is  There  a  New  Education?     Educa.  Rev.,  11:58. 
The  Meaning  of  Education,  p.  69. 
Status  of  Education  at  Close  of  Century.     Educa.  Rev., 

19:313- 
Critic  at  Sea.     Review  of  the  Public  School  System  of 
the  United   States    (by  author  of   Preston   Papers). 
Educa.,  14:530,  593;  15:37,  93,  I49,  206,  288,  340. 
Crane,  W.  I.     Educational  Diagnosis.     School  Rev.,  10 :433. 
Draper,  A.   S.     Function  of  the  State  Touching  Education.     Educa, 

Rev.,  15:105. 
Dwight,  T.    True  Purposes  of  the  Higher  Education.    Forum,  13:311. 
Education  in  a  Democracy.     New  Eng.  Mag.   (n.  s.),  21: 
378. 
Eliot,  C.  W.     Why  the  Republic  May  Endure.     In  Hart's  American 
History  Told  by  Contemporaries,  4 :654. 
Tendencies  of  Secondary  Education.    Educa.  Rev.,  14: 

417. 
Unity  of  Educational  Reform.     Educa.  Rev.,  8:209. 
Eliot  and  others.    What  Is  It  to  Be  Educated?     Chaut.,  30:19. 

Recent  Changes   in   Social   Education.    Atlan.   Mo., 

84 :433. 
Finlay,  J.  J.     Scope  of  the  Science  of  Education     Educa.  Rev.,  14:236. 
Flower,  B.  O.     Twentieth  Century  Education.     Arena,  29:84.  ■< 

Gilbert,  C.  B.     The  New  Education.     Educa.,  16:37,  95,  151. 
Gooding,  W.  L.     Psychology  and  Pedagogy.     School  Rev.,  3 :5S6. 
Hailman,  W.  N.     The  New  Education.     Educa.,  5  :i74. 
Hadley,  A.  T.    End  in   Education.     Outlook,  68:761.    Also,   Meaning 

and  Purpose  of  Secondary  Education.     School  Rev.,  10:729. 
Hall,   G.    Stanley.     The   New    Psychology   as   a   Basis   of   Education. 

Forum,  17:710. 


390  APPENDIX  [390 

Hanus,  P.  H.      Educational    Aims    and    Educational    Values.      Educa. 

Rev.,  9:323- 
Two  Contemporary  Problems  in  Education.     Pop.  Sci. 

Mo.,  58:585. 
Hallowell,  J.  H.     Modern  Tendencies  in  Education.     Educa.,  20:143. 
Harris,  W.  T.     Educational  Function  of  the  School.     Independent,  53 : 

1782. 
Educational  Reform.     Tendencies  of  Will  Training  and 

Power  of  Independent  Thought  Should   Be  United. 

Jour,  of  Educa.   (Boston),  45:407.    The  Educational 

Situation,  45  :4io.     The  New  Education.    Arena,  17 : 

353- 
Henderson,  C.  H.     A  New  Program  in  Education.     Atlan.  Mo.,  8l  :76o. 
Kershner,  J.  E.     Is  There  a  New  Revival?     Educa.  Rev.,  18:501. 
Kiehle,  D.  L.     The  New  Education.     Educa.,  4:612. 
Ladd,   Geo.   T.      Essentials  of  a  Modern   Liberal   Education.      Educa. 

Rev.,  10:218. 
LeConte,  Joseph.      Effect  of  the  Theory  of  Evolution  on   Education. 

Educa.  Rev.,  10:121. 
Kirkpatrick,  E.     Historical  Development  of  Superior  Education.     Am. 

Jour.  Educa.,  24:453. 
Lowrey,  C.  E.     Strictures  on  Current  Educational  Tendencies.     Educa., 

14:361. 
Louch,  Miss  M.     Educational  Progress  in  America.     Educa.  Rev.,  7  :7i. 
Mahaffy,  J.  P.     Future  of  Education.     19th  Cent.,  34:212. 

Modern  Education.     19th  Cent.,  42 :703. 
Mason,  E.  O.     Modern  Education  from  the  Standpoint  of  the  Student. 

Educa.,  20:231. 
Mayo,  A.  D.     The  New  Education — the  Christian  Education.     Educa., 

19 :546. 
Mead,  E.  D.    Adjustment  of  Education  to  Contemporary  Needs.    Educa. 

Rev.,  19:472. 
Munroe,  J.  P.    Dangerous  Tendencies  in  Education.     Educa.  Rev.,  3 : 

145- 
Mtinsterberg,  H.       Productive  Scholarship  in  America.       Atlan.  Mo., 

87:615. 
Paulsen,  F.     Evolution  of  the  Educational  Ideal.     Forum,  23  :598,  672. 

Pedagogy  and  Education.     Educa.,  18:496-501. 
Powell,  Charlotte  A.     Exogenous  and  Endogenous  Education.     Educa., 

13  :44- 
Rein,  Wilhelm.     The  Old  and  the  New  Pedagogy  in  Germany.     Educa. 

Rev.,  1 1  :209. 
Rice,  J.  M.     How  Shall  the  Child  Be  Taught?     Obstacles  to  Rational 
Educational   Reform.    Forum,  22:385. 


391  ]  APPENDIX  391 

Public   Schools  in  Various   Cities  of  the  United   States. 
Forum,  14:14s,  293,  429,  616,  753;  15:31,  200,  362,  504; 
16:500. 
Runyon,  Laura  L.     Day  with  the  New  Education.     Chaut.,  30  tsSg. 

School  Reform.     Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  57 :2io. 
Scripture,  E.  W.     Education  as  a  Science.     Ped.  Sem.,  2:111. 
Search,  P.  W.     Pueblo  Plan  for  Individual  Teaching.     Educa.  Rev.,  7 : 

154;  8:84. 
Smith,    Sydney.      Professional    Education.     Edinb.    Rev.,    15 :40.      (Re- 
view of  Edgeworth's  Essay.) 
Spalding,  J.  L.    Progress  in  Education.    Proc.  N.  E.  A.,  1901,  pp.  66-85. 
Stanley,    H.    M.       Evolutionary    Psychology    and    Education.       Educa. 

Rev.,  12  :50. 
Thurber,  C.  H.    Advance  in  Education  in  Last  Decade.     School  Rev., 

8:257. 
Thwing,   C.   F.     Educational    Problems   of  the  20th   Century.     Forum, 

25:315- 

Walker,  F.  A.  Relation  of  Technical  to  General  or  Liberal  Education. 
Educa.  Rev.,  9:417. 

Walker,  J.  B.,  and  others.  Modern  Education.  Cosmop.,  22 :68i ;  23 : 
Z2,,  185,  263,  271,  437,  568,  611;  24:142,  453,  567,  664;  28:104, 
249.  358,  471 ;  29 :266. 

White,  R.  G.  Public  School  Failure.  North  Am.  Rev.,  131 :537  (2d 
vol.). 

Whitton,  F.     Higher  Ideals  in  Social  Education.     School  Rev.,  8:261. 

Winship,  A.  E.  Higher  Education  in  Practice.  Jour,  of  Educa.  (Bos- 
ton), 46:184. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  is  meant  by  the  term  "New  Education?" 

2.  Are  we  justified  in  using  the  term  "  New  Education?"     If  so,  what 
are  the  reasons  which  justify  its  use? 

3.  Who  are  some  of  the  educational  leaders  of  to-day  in  America? 
Why  leaders? 

4.  What  are  some  of  the   leading  educational  problems   at  present 
under  discussion? 


OF  * 


■Piii^o 


RNIIL 


VITA 

The  author  of  this  publication,  son  of  George  W.  and 
Druzilla  Arnold  Luckey,  was  born  near  Decatur,  Indiana, 
February  1 1,  1855. 

He  obtained  his  early  education  in  the  district  schools, 
and  graduated  from  the  Decatur  High  School  in  1873.  For 
the  next  five  years  the  winter  months  were  spent  in  teaching 
and  the  rest  of  the  time  in  farm  labor  and  in  study  at  the 
Northern  Indiana  Normal  School,  Valparaiso,  Indiana. 

In  1878,  he  was  elected  County  Superintendent  of  schools 
of  Adams  County,  Indiana.  He  served  in  this  capacity  for 
four  years,  refusing  a  unanimous  re-appointment  in  order  to 
accept  the  city  superintendency  of  schools  of  Decatur,  Indi- 
ana. After  four  years  service  as  City  Superintendent  he 
declined  re-election,  to  go  to  California. 

From  1887  to  1892,  he  was  superintendent  of  schools, 
Ontario,  California.  In  1892  he  entered  Leland  Stanford 
University,  graduating  in  1894  with  the  degree  of  Bachelor 
of  Arts.  The  summers  of  1893  and  1894  he  spent  at  the 
Hopkins'  Seaside  Laboratory,  Pacific  Grove,  California,  in 
the  study  of  histology  and  embryology.  In  1894-95  he  was 
a  fellow  in  psychology  at  Clark  University,  Worcester,  Mass. 
In  1895  he  became  associate  professor  of  pedagogy,  Univer- 
sity of  Nebraska,  organizing  the  department  which  had  just 
been  established.  The  following  year  he  was  promoted  to 
the  professorship  of  education,  a  position  he  still  holds. 

The  year  1 899-1 900  was  spent  on  a  leave  of  absence  at 
Teachers'  College,  Columbia  University,  where  he  was  made 
a  fellow  in  education.  He  received  the  degree  of  Doctor  of 
Piiilosophy  from  Columbia  University  in  1900. 

393 


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